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Chapter 1 Welding Technology Fundamental1

1.1 Modern Engineering Structural Material1

1.2 Mechanical Property of Metal Material3

1.3 Thermophysical Property of Metal Material4

1.3.1 Specific Heat4

1.3.2 Thermal Expansion5

1.3.3 ThermalConductivity5

1.3.4 Melting Point or Melting Range5

1.3.5 Thermionic Work Function6

1.4 Principal Types of Heat Treatment of Steel6

1.5 Arc Physics6

1.5.1 Stabilitv of E1ectric Arc6

1.5.2 Stability of AC Arc8

Chapter 2 Arc Welding Power Source16

2.1 Classification ofPower Source16

2.1.1 AC Power Supplies16

2.1.2 DC power supplies19

2.1.3 Inverse Source of Arc Welding20

2.2 Electrical Characteristics of Power Source21

2.2.1 Constant Voltage21

2.2.2 Constant Current21

2.2.3 Combined Constant-Current and Constant-Voltage Characteristics22

2.3 Selecting and Specifying a Power Source22

Chapter 3 Arc Welding Process25

3.1 Shielded Metal-Arc Welding25

3.2 Gas Shielded-Arc Welding27

3.2.1 Specific Advantages of Gas-shielded Arc28

3.2.2 Types of Gas-Shielded Arc Processes28

3.2.3 Gas Tungsten Arc-Tig28

3.2.4 Gas Metal Arc-Mig31

3.2.5 CO2 Welding34

3.2.6 Pulsed Arc Welding35

3.3 Submerged Arc Welding Fundamentals of the process36

3.3.1 Deffmition and general description36

3.3.2 Principles of operation37

3.4 Plasma Arc Welding38

3.4.1 Keyhole Action39

3.4.2 Arc Shaping39

3.4.3 Operating Data39

3.4.4 Applications40

3.4.5 Summary40

Chapter 4 Other Welding Methods41

4.1 Resistance Welding41

4.1.1 Introduction41

4.1.2 Resistance Spot Welding(RSW)42

4.1.3 Projection Welding44

4.1.4 Resistance Seam Welding(RSEW)45

4.1.5 Upset Butt Welding46

4.1.6 Fiash Butt Welding47

4.2 Friction Stir Welding49

4.2.1 Introduction49

4.2.2 Principles50

4.2.3 Friction Stir Tool51

4.2.4 Friction Stirring Imperfections55

4.3 Laser Beam Welding56

4.3.1 Introduction56

4.3.2 Principles58

4.3.3 Metals Welded60

4.3.4 Machines60

4.3.5 Parameters and Technology62

4.4 Electron Beam Welding63

4.4.1 Introduction63

4.4.2 Principles64

4.4.3 Variations66

4.4.4 Equirment67

4.4.5 Safety68

Chapter 5 Welding Metallurgy69

5.1 Chemical Reactions in Welding69

5.1.1 Overview69

5.1.2 Gas-Metal Reactions70

5.1.3 Slag-Metal Reactions79

5.2 Weld Metal Solidifcation85

5.2.1 Epitaxial Growth at Fusion Boundary85

5.2.2 Nonepitaxial Growth at Fusion Boundary86

5.2.3 Competitive Growth in Bulk Fusion Zone87

5.2.4 Effect of Welding Parameters on Grain Structure88

5.2.5 Weld Metal Nuc leation Mechanisms89

5.2.6 Grain Structure Control94

5.3 The Microstructure and Properties of Heat-affected Zone97

5.3.1 Welding Thermal Cycle98

5.3.2 The Microstructure Changes in the HAZ98

5.3.3 Hardness Distribution in the HAZ101

5.3.4 Welding Cracks in the HAZ105

Chapter 6 Weldability of Material109

6.1 Weldability of Material and Testing Method109

6.1.1 Weldability of Material109

6.1.2 Weldability Evaluation and Test Method112

6.2 Weldability oflow carbon steel114

6.2.1 Metallurgy ofthe liquid weld metal114

6.2.2 Solidification and solidification cracking119

6.2.3 Stress intensification,embrittlement and cracking of fusion welds below the solidus121

6.2.4 Lamellar tearing124

6.2.5 Reheat Cracking125

6.3 Weldability of Magnesium and Its Alloys128

6.3.1 Alloys and Welding Procedures128

6.3.2 Oxide Film Removal128

6.3.3 Cracking128

6.3.4 Mechanical Properties129

6.3.5 Corrosion Resistance and Fire Risk129

Chapter 7 Residual Stresses,Distortion and Fatigue130

7.1 Residual stresses130

7.1.1 Development of residual stresses130

7.1.2 Analysis ofResidual Stresses131

7.2 Distortion133

7.2.1 Cause133

7.2.2 Remedies133

7.3 Fatigue134

7.3.1 Mechanism134

7.3.2 Fractography135

7.3.3 S-N Curves135

7.3.4 Effect of Joint Geometry135

7.3.5 Effect of Stress Raisers136

7.3.6 Effect of Corrosion137

7.3.7 Remedies137

7.4 Case Studies138

7.4.1 Failure of a Steel Pipe Assembly138

7.4.2 Failure of a Ball Mill138

Chapter 8 Automation of Welding140

8.1 Introduction of Automatic Welding System140

8.2 Flexible Automation ofWelding143

8.3 ARC Welding Robots145

8.3.1 Introduction145

8.3.2 Robot Manipulator Configuration147

8.3.3 Robot Welding Application151

8.3.4 Buying a Welding Robot154

8.3.5 Robot Safety154

8.4 Controls for Automatic Arc Welding156

8.4.1 Automatic Welding Controllers156

8.4.2 Robot Controllers159

8.4.3 Teaching the Robot159

8.4.4 Robot Memory161

8.4.5 Weld Execution161

8.5 Sensors and Adaptive Control162

8.5.1 Introduction162

8.5.2 Contact Sensors164

8.5.3 Noncontaet Sensor Systems165

8.6 Tooling and Fixtures168

Chapter 9 Welding Quality Inspection171

9.1 Welding Defects171

9.1.1 Definition and Types171

9.1.2 Cracks171

9.1.3 Porosity172

9.1.4 Solid Inclusion172

9.1.5 Lack ofFusion and Inadequate or incomplete penetration173

9.1.6 Imperfect Shape173

9.2 Non-destructive Testing174

9.2.1 Radiographic Testing174

9.2.2 Ultrasonic Testing(UT)177

9.2.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection(MPI)178

9.2.4 Liquid Penetrant Testing(PT)179

9.3 Destructive Test182

9.3.1 Tension Tests182

9.3.2 Bend Tests182

9.3.3 Charpy Tests183

9.3.4 Hardness Testing183

9.4 Radiograph Interpretation184

9.4.1 General Welding Discontinuities184

9.4.2 Other Discontinuities188

References190