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Chapter 1 Introduction1

1.1 What is language?1

1.1.1 Definition of language1

1.1.2 Distinctive features of language3

1.2 What is linguistics?9

1.2.1 Definition of linguistics9

1.2.2 Principles for linguistic study10

1.2.3 The scope of linguistics11

1.2.4 Some basic distinctions in linguistics13

Exercises17

Chapter 2 Phonetics21

2.1 Study of speech sounds21

2.2 Definition of phonetics21

2.2.1 Analysis of speech sounds21

2.2.2 Process of speech production and perception22

2.3 Speech organs23

2.4 Production of a sound24

2.5 Transcription of speech sounds25

2.6 Classification of English speech sounds29

2.6.1 Classification of English consonants29

2.6.2 Classification of vowels33

Exercises35

Chapter 3 Phonology37

3.1 Phonetics and phonology37

3.2 Phone,phoneme and allophone37

3.3 Distinctive features39

3.4 Minimal pairs40

3.5 Complementary distribution40

3.6 Phonological rules41

3.7 Suprasegmental features42

3.7.1 Stress43

3.7.2 Tone44

3.7.3 Intonation45

Exercises45

Chapter 4 Morphology47

4.1 Definition of morphology47

4.2 Classification of morphology48

4.3 Morpheme and allomorph50

4.3.1 Morpheme50

4.3.2 Morpheme and phoneme51

4.3.3 Allomorph51

4.3.4 Types of morphemes52

4.4 Morphological rules—compounding56

4.4.1 Compounding57

4.4.2 Types of compound words57

4.4.3 Features of compounds58

Exercises61

Chapter 5 Syntax63

5.1 Definition of syntax63

5.2 Syntax as a system of rules63

5.3 Sentence structure65

5.4 Types of sentences66

5.5 Linear and hierarchical structures of sentences68

5.5.1 Linear word order of a sentence68

5.5.2 Hierarchical structure of a sentence69

5.5.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure70

5.6 Syntactic categories72

5.6.1 Lexical categories72

5.6.2 Phrasal categories73

5.6.3 Grammatical relations74

5.6.4 Combinational rules75

5.7 Syntactic movement and movement rules79

5.7.1 NP-movement and WH-movement79

5.7.2 Other types of movement80

5.7.3 Moveα—a general movement rule81

5.8 D-structure and S-structure81

5.9 Theory of Universal Grammar82

5.9.1 General principles of Universal Grammar83

5.9.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar83

Exercises85

Chapter 6 Semantics88

6.1 Definition of semantics88

6.2 Some major views concerning the study of meaning88

6.3 Lexical meaning91

6.3.1 Sense and reference91

6.3.2 Major sense relations92

6.4 Sense relations between sentences97

6.5 Semantic analysis100

Exercises102

Chapter 7 Pragmatics106

7.1 An introduction to pragmatics106

7.1.1 Definition106

7.1.2 Pragmatics vs.semantics106

7.1.3 Context and meaning107

7.1.4 Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning107

7.2 Speech act theory108

7.2.1 Austin's model of speech acts108

7.2.2 Searle's classification of speech acts110

7.2.3 Indirect speech act112

7.3 Conversational analysis114

7.3.1 The structural features of conversation114

7.3.2 Conversational implicature and the Cooperative Principle117

7.3.3 The Politeness Principle121

Exercises129

Chapter 8 Historical Linguistics132

8.1 A brief history of English language132

8.1.1 Old English(449—1100)133

8.1.2 Middle English(1100—1500)134

8.1.3 Modern English(1500—the present)135

8.2 Linguistic changes of English136

8.2.1 Sound change136

8.2.2 Lexical change137

8.2.3 Morphological change141

8.2.4 Syntactic change141

8.2.5 Semantic change142

8.3 Language family and language typology144

8.3.1 Historical comparative linguistics145

8.3.2 Language family146

8.3.3 Language typology149

8.4 Causes of language change152

8.4.1 Sociological factors152

8.4.2 Development of science and technology152

8.4.3 Phonological and grammatical simplification153

8.4.4 Children's language acquisition154

Exercises155

Chapter 9 Sociolinguistics156

9.1 Variety of language related to the user156

9.1.1 Notion of variety156

9.1.2 Dialect157

9.1.3 Language variety and social class158

9.1.4 Language variety and race159

9.1.5 Language variety and sex159

9.1.6 Language variety and age160

9.1.7 Idiolect160

9.1.8 Standard dialect161

9.2 Variety of language related to the use161

9.2.1 Register161

9.2.2 Scales of formality163

9.3 Standard and non-standard dialects165

9.3.1 Standard dialect165

9.3.2 Non-standard dialect167

9.3.3 Lingua franca167

9.3.4 Esperanto—an artificial lingua franca168

9.4 Pidgin,creole,bilingualism and diglossia169

9.4.1 Pidgin and creole169

9.4.2 Bilingualism and diglossia171

Exercises173

Chapter 10 Psycholinguistics174

10.1 Language and thought174

10.1.1 Early views on language-thought relationship174

10.1.2 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis175

10.2 First language acquisition177

10.2.1 Language acquisition177

10.2.2 Stages in first language acquisition178

10.2.3 Children's development of linguistic system179

10.3 Theories on child language acquisition184

10.3.1 Reinforcement theory184

10.3.2 Innate linguistic competence theory185

10.4 Error analysis and second language acquisition186

10.4.1 Acquisition vs.learning186

10.4.2 Second language acquisition vs.first language acquisition186

10.4.3 Transfer and interference187

10.5 Types of errors189

10.5.1 Inter-lingual errors189

10.5.2 Intra-lingual errors—over-generalization191

10.5.3 Errors due to communication strategies192

10.5.4 Performance errors192

10.5.5 Errors due to cross-association193

Exercises194

Answers to Exercises195

Bibliography216

An English-Chinese Glossary220