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PART Ⅰ Introduction And Internet Applications1

Chapter 1 Introduction And Overview1

1.1 Growth Of Computer Networking1

1.2 Why Networking Seems Complex2

1.3 The Five Key Aspects Of Networking2

1.4 Public And Private Parts of The Internet6

1.5 Networks,Interoperability,And Standards8

1.6 Protocol Suites And Layering Models9

1.7 How Data Passes Through Layers11

1.8 Headers And Layers12

1.9 ISO and the OSI Seven Layer Reference Model13

1.10 The Inside Scoop13

1.11 Remainder Of The Text14

1.12 Summary15

Chapter 2 Internet Trends17

2.1 Introduction17

2.2 Resource Sharing17

2.3 Growth Of The Internet18

2.4 From Resource Sharing To Communication21

2.5 From Text To Multimedia21

2.6 Recent Trends22

2.7 Summary23

Chapter 3 Internet Applications And Network Programming27

3.1 Introduction27

3.2 Two Basic Internet Communication Paradigms28

3.3 Connection-oriented Communication29

3.4 The Client-Server Model Of Interaction30

3.5 Characteristics Of Clients And Servers31

3.6 Server Programs And Server-Class Computers31

3.7 Requests,Responses,And Direction Of Data Flow32

3.8 Multiple Clients And Multiple Servers32

3.9 Server Identification And Demultiplexing33

3.10 Concurrent Servers34

3.11 Circular Dependencies Among Servers35

3.12 Peer-To-Peer Interactions35

3.13 Network Programming And The Socket API36

3.14 Sockets,Descriptors,And Network I/O36

3.15 Parameters And The Socket API37

3.16 Socket Calls In A Client And Server38

3.17 Socket Functions Used By Both Client And Server38

3.18 The Connection Function Used Only By A Client40

3.19 Socket Functions Used Only By A Server40

3.20 Socket Functions Used With The Message Paradigm43

3.21 Other Socket Functions44

3.22 Sockets,Threads,And Inheritance45

3.23 Summary45

Chapter 4 Traditional Internet Applications49

4.1 Introduction49

4.2 Application-Layer Protocols49

4.3 Representation And Transfer50

4.4 Web Protocols51

4.5 Document Representation With HTML52

4.6 Uniform Resource Locators And Hyperlinks54

4.7 Web Document Transfer With HTTP55

4.8 Caching In Browsers57

4.9 Browser Architecture59

4.10 File Transfer Protocol（FTP）59

4.11 FTP Communication Paradigm60

4.12 Electronic Mail63

4.13 The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol（SMTP）64

4.14 ISPs,Mail Servers,And Mail Access66

4.15 Mail Access Protocols（POP,IMAP）67

4.16 Email Representation Standards（RFC2822,MIME）67

4.17 Domain Name System（DNS）69

4.18 Domain Names That Begin With www71

4.19 The DNS Hierarchy And Server Model72

4.20 Name Resolution72

4.21 Caching In DNS Servers74

4.22 Types Of DNS Entries75

4.23 Aliases And CNAME Resource Records76

4.24 Abbreviations And The DNS76

4.25 Internationalized Domain Names77

4.26 Extensible Representations（XML）78

4.27 Summary79

PART Ⅱ Data Communication Basics83

Chapter 5 Overview Of Data Communications85

5.1 Introduction85

5.2 The Essence Of Data Communications86

5.3 Motivation And Scope Of The Subject87

5.4 The Conceptual Pieces Of A Communication System87

5.5 The Subtopics Of Data Communications90

5.6 Summary91

Chapter 6 Information Sources And Signals93

6.1 Introduction93

6.2 Information Sources93

6.3 Analog And Digital Signals94

6.4 Periodic And Aperiodic Signals94

6.5 Sine Waves And Signal Characteristics95

6.6 Composite Signals97

6.7 The Importance Of Composite Signals And Sine Functions97

6.8 Time And Frequency Domain Representations98

6.9 Bandwidth Of An Analog Signal99

6.10 Digital Signals And Signal Levels100

6.11 Baud And Bits Per Second101

6.12 Converting A Digital Signal To Analog102

6.13 The Bandwidth of A Digital Signal103

6.14 Synchronization And Agreement About Signals103

6.15 Line Coding104

6.16 Manchester Encoding Used In Computer Networks106

6.17 Converting An Analog Signal To Digital107

6.18 The Nyquist Theorem And Sampling Rate108

6.19 Nyquist Theorem And Telephone System Transmission108

6.20 Encoding And Data Compression109

6.21 Summary110

Chapter 7 Transmission Media113

7.1 Introduction113

7.2 Guided And Unguided Transmission113

7.3 A Taxonomy By Forms Of Energy114

7.4 Background Radiation And Electrical Noise115

7.5 Twisted Pair Copper Wiring115

7.6 Shielding:Coaxial Cable And Shielded Twisted Pair117

7.7 Categories Of Twisted Pair Cable118

7.8 Media Using Light Energy And Optical Fibers119

7.9 Types Of Fiber And Light Transmission120

7.10 Optical Fiber Compared To Copper Wiring121

7.11 InfraRed Communication Technologies122

7.12 Point-To-Point Laser Communication122

7.13 Electromagnetic（Radio）Communication123

7.14 Signal Propagation124

7.15 Types Of Satellites125

7.16 GEO Communication Satellites126

7.17 GEO Coverage Of The Earth127

7.18 Low Earth Orbit（LEO）Satellites And Clusters128

7.19 Tradeoffs Among Media Types128

7.20 Measuring Transmission Media129

7.21 The Effect Of Noise On Communication129

7.22 The Significance Of Channel Capacity130

7.23 Summary131

Chapter 8 Reliability And Channel Coding135

8.1 Introduction135

8.2 The Three Main Sources Of Transmission Errors135

8.3 Effect Of Transmission Errors On Data136

8.4 Two Strategies For Handling Channel Errors137

8.5 Block And Convolutional Error Codes138

8.6 An Example Block Error Code:Single Parity Checking139

8.7 The Mathematics Of Block Error Codes And（n,k）Notation140

8.8 Hamming Distance:A Measure Of A Code's Strength140

8.9 The Hamming Distance Among Strings In A Codebook141

8.10 The Tradeoff Between Error Detection And Overhead142

8.11 Error Correction With Row And Column（RAC）Parity142

8.12 The 16-Bit Checksum Used In The Internet144

8.13 Cyclic Redundancy Codes（CRCs）145

8.14 An Efficient Hardware Implementation Of CRC148

8.15 Automatic Repeat reQuest（ARQ）Mechanisms148

8.16 Summary149

Chapter 9 Transmission Modes153

9.1 Introduction153

9.2 A Taxonomy Of Transmission Modes153

9.3 Parallel Transmission154

9.4 Serial Transmission155

9.5 Transmission Order:Bits And Bytes156

9.6 Timing Of Serial Transmission156

9.7 Asynchronous Transmission157

9.8 RS-232 Asynchronous Character Transmission157

9.9 Synchronous Transmission158

9.10 Bytes,Blocks,And Frames159

9.11 Isochronous Transmission160

9.12 Simplex,Half-Duplex,and Full-Duplex Transmission160

9.13 DCE and DTE Equipment162

9.14 Summary162

Chapter 10 Modulation And Modems165

10.1 Introduction165

10.2 Carriers,Frequency,And Propagation165

10.3 Analog Modulation Schemes166

10.4 Amplitude Modulation166

10.5 Frequency Modulation167

10.6 Phase Shift Modulation168

10.7 Amplitude Modulation And Shannon's Theorem168

10.8 Modulation,Digital Input,And Shift Keying169

10.9 Phase Shift Keying169

10.10 Phase Shift And A Constellation Diagram171

10.11 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation173

10.12 Modem Hardware For Modulation And Demodulation174

10.13 Optical And Radio Frequency Modems174

10.14 Dialup Modems175

10.15 QAM Applied To Dialup175

10.16 V.32 and V.32bis Dialup Modems176

10.17 Summary177

Chapter 11 Multiplexing And Demultiplexing（Channelization）181

11.1 Introduction181

11.2 The Concept Of Multiplexing181

11.3 The Basic Types Of Multiplexing182

11.4 Frequency Division Multiplexing（FDM）183

11.5 Using A Range Of Frequencies Per Channel185

11.6 Hierarchical FDM186

11.7 Wavelength Division Multiplexing（WDM）187

11.8 Time Division Multiplexing（TDM）187

11.9 Synchronous TDM188

11.10 Framing Used In The Telephone System Version Of TDM189

11.11 Hierarchical TDM190

11.12 The Problem With Synchronous TDM:Unfilled Slots190

11.13 Statistical TDM191

11.14 Inverse Multiplexing192

11.15 Code Division Multiplexing193

11.16 Summary195

Chapter 12 Access And Interconnection Technologies199

12.1 Introduction199

12.2 Internet Access Technology:Upstream And Downstream199

12.3 Narrowband And Broadband Access Technologies200

12.4 The Local Loop And ISDN202

12.5 Digital Subscriber Line（DSL）Technologies202

12.6 Local Loop Characteristics And Adaptation203

12.7 The Data Rate Of ADSL204

12.8 ADSL Installation And Splitters205

12.9 Cable Modem Technologies205

12.10 The Data Rate Of Cable Modems206

12.11 Cable Modem Installation206

12.12 Hybrid Fiber Coax207

12.13 Access Technologies That Employ Optical Fiber208

12.14 Head-End And Tail-End Modem Terminology208

12.15 Wireless Access Technologies209

12.16 High-Capacity Connections At The Internet Core209

12.17 Circuit Termination,DSU/CSU,and NIU210

12.18 Telephone Standards For Digital Circuits211

12.19 DS Terminology And Data Rates212

12.20 Highest Capacitv Circuits（STS Standards）213

12.21 Optical Carrier Standards213

12.22 The C Suffix213

12.23 Synchronous Optical NETwork（SONET）214

12.24 Summary215

PART Ⅲ Packet Switching And Network Technologies219

Chapter 13 Local Area Networks:Packets,Frames,And Topologies221

13.1 Introduction221

13.2 Circuit Switching222

13.3 Packet Switching223

13.4 Local And Wide Area Packet Networks224

13.5 Standards For Packet Format And Identification225

13.6 IEEE 802 Model And Standards226

13.7 Point-To-Point And Multi-Access Networks229

13.8 LAN Topologies229

13.9 Packet Identification,Demultiplexing,MAC Addresses231

13.10 Unicast,Broadcast,And Multicast Addresses232

13.11 Broadcast,Multicast,And Efficient Multi-Point Delivery233

13.12 Frames And Framing234

13.13 Byte And Bit Stuffing235

13.14 Summary237

Chapter 14 The IEEE MAC Sub-Layer241

14.1 Introduction241

14.2 A Taxonomy Of Mechanisms For Multi-Access241

14.3 Static And Dynamic Channel Allocation242

14.4 Channelization Protocols243

14.5 Controlled Access Protocols244

14.6 Random Access Protocols246

14.7 Summary252

Chapter 15 Wired LAN Technology（Ethernet And 802.3）255

15.1 Introduction255

15.2 The Venerable Ethernet255

15.3 Ethernet Frame Format256

15.4 Ethernet Type Field And Demultiplexing256

15.5 IEEE's Version Of Ethernet（802.3）257

15.6 LAN Connections And Network Interface Cards258

15.7 Ethernet Evolution And Thicknet Wiring258

15.8 Thinnet Ethernet Wiring259

15.9 Twisted Pair Ethernet Wiring And Hubs260

15.10 physical And Logical Ethernet Topology261

15.11 Wiring In An Office Building261

15.12 Variants Of Twisted Pair Ethernet And Speeds263

15.13 Twisted Pair Connectors And Cables263

15.14 Summary264

Chapter 16 Wireless Networking Technologies267

16.1 Introduction267

16.2 A Taxonomy Of Wireless Networks267

16.3 Personal Area Networks（PANs）268

16.4 ISM Wireless Bands Used By LANs And PANs269

16.5 Wireless LAN Technologies And Wi-Fi269

16.6 Spread Spectrum Techniques270

16.7 Other Wireless LAN Standards271

16.8 Wireless LAN Architecture272

16.9 Overlap,Association,And 802.11 Frame Format273

16.10 Coordination Among Access Points274

16.11 Contention And Contention-Free Access274

16.12 Wireless MAN Technology and WiMax276

16.13 PAN Technologies And Standards278

16.14 Other Short-Distance Communication Technologies279

16.15 Wireless WAN Technologies280

16.16 Cell Clusters And Frequency Reuse282

16.17 Generations of Cellular Technologies283

16.18 VSAT Satellite Technology286

16.19 GPS Satellites287

16.20 Software Radio And The Future Of Wireless288

16.21 Summary289

Chapter 17 LAN Extensions:Fiber Modems,Repeaters,Bridges,and Switches293

17.1 Introduction293

17.2 Distance Limitation And LAN Design293

17.3 Fiber Modem Extensions294

17.4 Repeaters295

17.5 Bridges And Bridging295

17.6 Learning Bridges And Frame Filtering296

17.7 Why Bridging Works well297

17.8 Distributed Spanning Tree298

17.9 Switching And Layer 2 Switches299

17.1O VLAN Switches301

17.11 Bridging Used With Other Devices302

17.12 Summary302

Chapter 18 WAN Technologies And Dynamic Routing305

18.1 Introduction305

18.2 Large Spans And Wide Area Networks305

18.3 Traditional WAN Architecture306

18.4 Forming A WAN308

18.5 Store And Forward Paradigm309

18.6 Addressing In A WAN309

18.7 Next-Hop Forwarding310

18.8 Source Independence313

18.9 Dynamic Routing Updates In A WAN313

18.10 Default Routes314

18.11 Forwarding Table Computation315

18.12 Distributed Route Computation316

18.13 Shortest Path Computation In A Graph320

18.14 Routing Problems321

18.15 Summary322

Chapter 19 Networking Technologies Past And Present325

19.1 Introduction325

19.2 Connection And Access Technologies325

19.3 LAN Technologies327

19.4 WAN Technologies328

19.5 Summary331

PART Ⅳ Internetworking333

Chapter 20 Internetworking:Concepts,Architecture,and Protocols335

20.1 Introduction335

20.2 The Motivation For Internetworking335

20.3 The Concept Of Universal Service336

20.4 Universal Service In A Heterogeneous World336

20.5 Internetworking337

20.6 Physical Network Connection With Routers337

20.7 Internet Architecture338

20.8 Achieving Universal Service339

20.9 A Virtual Network339

20.10 Protocols For Internetworking341

20.11 Review Of TCP/IP Layering341

20.12 Host Computers,Routers,And Protocol Layers342

20.13 Summary342

Chapter 21 IP:Internet Addressing345

21.1 Introduction345

21.2 Addresses For The Virtual Internet345

21.3 The IP Addressing Scheme346

21.4 The IP Address Hierarchy346

21.5 Original Classes Of IP Addresses347

21.6 Dotted Decimal Notation348

21.7 Division Of The Address Space349

21.8 Authority For Addresses350

21.9 Subnet And Classless Addressing350

21.10 Address Masks352

21.11 CIDR Notation353

21.12 A CIDR Example353

21.13 CIDR Host Addresses355

21.14 Special IP Addresses356

21.15 Summary Of Special IP Addresses358

21.16 The Berkeley Broadcast Address Form358

21.17 Routers And The IP Addressing Principle359

21.18 Multi-Homed Hosts360

21.19 Summary360

Chapter 22 Datagram Forwarding363

22.1 Introduction363

22.2 Connectionless Service363

22.3 Virtual Packets364

22.4 The IP Datagram364

22.5 The IP Datagram Header Format365

22.6 Forwarding An IP Datagram367

22.7 Network Prefix Extraction And Datagram Forwarding368

22.8 Longest Prefix Match369

22.9 Destination Address And Next-Hop Address369

22.10 Best-Effort Delivery370

22.11 IP Encapsulation370

22.12 Transmission Across An Internet371

22.13 MTU And Datagram Fragmentation373

22.14 Reassembly Of A Datagram From Fragments374

22.15 Collecting The Fragments Of A Datagram375

22.16 The Consequence Of Fragment Loss376

22.17 Fragmenting A Fragment376

22.18 Summary377

Chapter 23 Support Protocols And Technologies381

23.1 Introduction381

23.2 Address Resolution381

23.3 The Address Resolution Protocol（ARP）383

23.4 ARP Message Format384

23.5 ARP Encapsulation385

23.6 ARP Caching And Message Processing386

23.7 The Conceptuat Address Boundary388

23.8 Internet Control Message Protocol（ICMP）389

23.9 ICMP Message Format And Encapsulation391

23.10 Protocol Software,Parameters,And Configuration391

23.11 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol（DHCP）392

23.12 DHCP Protocol Operation And Optimizations394

23.13 DHCP Message Format394

23.14 Indirect DHCP Server Access Through A Relay395

23.15 Network Address Translation（NAT）396

23.16 NAT Operation And Private Addresses397

23.17 Transport-Layer NAT（NAPT）399

23.18 NAT And Servers400

23.19 NAT Software And Systems For Use At Home400

23.20 Summary401

Chapter 24 The Future IP（IPv6）405

24.1 Introduction405

24.2 The Success Of IP405

24.3 The Motivation For Change406

24.4 The Hourglass Model And Difficulty Of Change407

24.5 A Name And A Version Number408

24.6 IPv6 Features408

24.7 IPv6 Datagram Format409

24.8 IPv6 Base Header Format410

24.9 Implicit And Explicit Header Size411

24.10 Fragmentation,Reassembly,And Path MTU412

24.11 The Purpose Of Multiple Headers413

24.12 IPv6 Addressing414

24.13 IPv6 Colon Hexadecimal Notation415

24.14 Summary416

Chapter 25 UDP:Datagram Transport Service419

25.1 Introduction419

25.2 Transport Protocols And End-To-End Communication419

25.3 The User Datagram Protocol420

25.4 The Connectionless Paradigm421

25.5 Message-Oriented Interface421

25.6 UDP Communication Semantics422

25.7 Modes Of Interaction And Broadcast Delivery423

25.8 Endpoint Identification With Protocol Port Numbers424

25.9 UDP Datagram Format424

25.10 The UDP Checksum And The Pseudo Header425

25.11 UDP Encapsulation426

25.12 Summary426

Chapter 26 TCP:Reliable Transport Service429

26.1 Introduction429

26.2 The Transmission Control Protocol429

26.3 The Service TCP Provides To Applications430

26.4 End-To-End Service And Virtual Connections431

26.5 Techniques That Transport Protocols Use432

26.6 Techniques To Avoid Congestion436

26.7 The Art Of Protocol Design437

26.8 Techniques Used In TCP To Handle Packet Loss438

26.9 Adaptive Retransmission439

26.10 Comparison Of Retransmission Times440

26.11 Buffers,Flow Control,And Windows441

26.12 TCP's Three-Way Handshake442

26.13 TCP Congestion Control443

26.14 TCP Segment Forrnat444

26.15 Summary446

Chapter 27 Internet Routing And Routing Protocols449

27.1 Introduction449

27.2 Static Vs.Dynamic Routing449

27.3 Static Routing In Hosts And A Default Route450

27.4 Dynamic Routing And Routers451

27.5 Routing In The Global Internet452

27.6 Autonomous System Concept453

27.7 The Two Types Of Internet Routing Protocols453

27.8 Routes And Data Traffic456

27.9 The Border Gateway Protocol（BGP）456

27.10 The Routing Information Protocol（RIP）458

27.11 RIP Packet Format459

27.12 The Open Shortest Path First Protocol（OSPF）460

27.13 An Example OSPF Graph461

27.14 OSPF Areas461

27.15 Intermediate System-Intermediate System（IS-IS）462

27.16 Multicast Routing463

27.17 Summary467

PART Ⅴ Other Networking ConceptS ＆ Technologies469

Chapter 28 Network Performance（QoS and DiffServ）471

28.1 Introduction471

28.2 Measures Of Performance471

28.3 Latency Or Delay472

28.4 Throughput,Capacity,And Goodput474

28.5 Understanding Throughput And Delay475

28.6 Jitter476

28.7 The Relationship Between Delay And Throughput477

28.8 Measuring Delay,Throughput,And Jitter478

28.9 Passive Measurement,Small Packets,And NetFlow480

28.10 Quality Of Service（QoS）481

28.11 Fine-Grain And Coarse-Grain QoS482

28.12 Implementation Of QoS484

28.13 Internet QoS Technologies486

28.14 Summary487

Chapter 29 Multimedia And IP Telephony（VoIP）491

29.1 Introduction491

29.2 Real-Time Data Transmission And Best Effort Delivery491

29.3 Delayed Playback And Jitter Buffers492

29.4 Real-time Transport Protocol（RTP）493

29.5 RTP Encapsulation494

29.6 IP Telephony495

29.7 Signaling And VoIP Signaling Standards496

29.8 Components Of An IP Telephone System497

29.9 Summary Of Protocols And Layering500

29.10 H.323 Characteristics501

29.11 H.323 Layering501

29.12 SIP Characteristics And Methods502

29.13 An Example SIP Session503

29.14 Telephone Number Mapping And Routing504

29.15 Summary505

Chapter 30 Network Security509

30.1 Introduction509

30.2 Criminal Exploits And Attacks509

30.3 Security Policy513

30.4 Responsibility And Control514

30.5 Security Technologies515

30.6 Hashing:An Integrity And Authentication Mechanism515

30.7 Access Control And Passwords516

30.8 Encryption:A Fundamental Security Technique516

30.9 Private Key Encryption517

30.10 Public Key Encryption517

30.11 Authentication With Digital Signatures518

30.12 Key Autorities And Digital Certificates519

30.13 Firewalls521

30.14 Firewall Implementation With A Packet Filter522

30.15 Intrusion Detection Systems524

30.16 Content Scanning And Deep Packet Inspection524

30.17 Virtual Private Networks（VPNs）525

30.18 The Use of VPN Technology For Telecommuting527

30.19 Packet Encryption Vs.Tunneling528

30.20 Security Technologies530

30.21 Summary531

Chapter 31 Network Management（SNMP）535

31.1 Introduction535

31.2 Managing An Intranet535

31.3 FCAPS:The Industry Standard Model536

31.4 Example Network Elements538

31.5 Network Management Tools539

31.6 Network Management Applications540

31.7 Simple Network Management Protocol541

31.8 SNMP's Fetch-Store Paradigm542

31.9 The SNMP MIB And Object Names542

31.10 The Variety Of MIB Variables543

31.11 MIB Variables That Correspond To Arrays543

31.12 Summary544

Chapter 32 Trends In Networking Technologies And Uses547

32.1 Introduction547

32.2 The Need For Scalable Internet Services547

32.3 Content Caching（Akamai）548

32.4 Web Load Balancers548

32.5 Server Virtualization549

32.6 Peer-To-Peer Communication549

32.7 Distributed Data Centers And Replication550

32.8 Universal Representation（XML）550

32.9 Social Networking551

32.10 Mobility And Wireless Networking551

32.11 Digital Video551

32.12 Multicast Delivery552

32.13 Higher-Speed Access And Switching552

32.14 Optical Switching552

32.15 Use Of Networking In Business553

32.16 Sensors At Large And In The Home553

32.17 Ad Hoc Networks553

32.18 Multi-Core CPUs And Network Processors554

32.19 IPv6554

32.20 Summary554

Appendix 1 A Simplified Application Programming Interface557

Index585