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INTRODUCTION1

CHAPTER Ⅰ．A brief survey of the history of linguistics1

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Data and aims of linguistics:connexions with related sciences6

CHAPTER Ⅲ．The object of study.8

1．On defining a language8

2．Linguistic structure:its place among the facts of language11

3．Languages and their place in human affairs.Semiology15

CHAPTER Ⅳ．Linguistics of language structure and linguistics of speech18

CHAPTER Ⅴ．Internal and external elements of a language21

CHAPTER Ⅵ．Representation of a language by writing.24

1．Why it is necessary to study this topic24

2．The prestige of writing:reasons for its ascendancy over the spoken word24

3．Systems of writing26

4．Causes of inconsistency between spelling and pronunciation27

5．Consequences of this inconsistency29

CHAPTER Ⅶ．Physiological Phonetics.32

1．Definition of the subject32

2．Transcription33

3．Writing as evidence34

APPENDIX PRINCIPLES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PHONETICS39

CHAPTER Ⅰ．Sound types.39

1．On defining speech sounds39

2．The vocal apparatus and how it works41

3．Classification of sounds by oral articulation44

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Sounds in spoken sequences.50

1．Necessity of studying sounds in spoken sequences50

2．Adduction and abduction52

3．Combinations of adduction and abduction in the spoken sequence54

4．Syllabic boundaries and vocalic peaks57

5．Criticism of theories of syllabification58

6．Duration of adduction and abduction59

7．Sounds of aperture 4. Diphthongs. Questions of spelling60

Editorial note62

PART ONE GENERAL PRINCIPLES65

CHAPTER Ⅰ．Nature of the linguistic sign.65

1．Sign,signification,signal65

2．First principle:the sign is arbitrary67

3．Second principle:linear character of the signal69

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Invariability and variability of the sign.71

1．Invariability71

2．Variability74

CHAPTER Ⅲ．Static linguistics and evolutionary linguistics.79

1．Internal duality of all sciences concerned with values79

2．Internal duality and the history of linguistics81

3．Examples of internal duality83

4．Difference between the two orders illustrated by comparisons87

5．Synchronic and diachronic linguistics.Their methods and principles contrasted89

6．Synchronic laws and diachronic laws90

7．Is there a panchronic point of view?94

8．Consequences of the confusion of synchrony with diachrony94

9．Conclusious96

PART TWO SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS99

CHAPTER Ⅰ．General observations99

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Concrete entities of a language.101

1．Entities and units．Definitions101

2．Methods of delimitation102

3．Practical difficulties of delimitation103

4．Conclusion105

CHAPTER Ⅲ．Identities,realities,values106

CHAPTER Ⅳ．Linguistic value.110

1．The language as thought organised in sound110

2．Linguistic value:conceptual aspects112

3．Linguistic value:material aspects116

4．The sign as a whole118

CHAPTER Ⅴ．Syntagmatic relations and associative relations.121

1．Definitions121

2．Syntagmatic relations122

3．Associative relations123

CHAPTER Ⅵ．The language mechanism.126

1．Syntagmatic interdependences126

2．Simultaneous functioning of both types of group127

3．Absolute arbitrariness and relative arbitrariness130

CHAPTER Ⅶ．Grammar and its subdivisions.133

1．Definitions.Traditional divisions133

2．Rational divisions135

CHAPTER Ⅷ．Abstract entities in grammar136

PART THREE DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS139

CHAPTER Ⅰ．General observations139

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Sound changes.143

1．Their absolute regularity143

2．Conditioning of sound changes143

3．Methodological considerations145

4．Causes of sound change146

5．The scope of sound change is unpredictable150

CHAPTER Ⅲ．Grammatical consequences of phonetic evolution.152

1．Breaking grammatical links152

2．Obliteration of word-composition153

3．There are no phonetic doublets154

4．Alternation155

5．Laws of alternation157

6．Alternation and grammatical link159

CHAPTER Ⅳ．Analogy.160

1．Definition and examples160

2．Analogies are not changes162

3．Analogy as the creative principle in languages164

CHAPTER Ⅴ．Analogy and evolution.167

1．How an analogical innovation enters the language167

2．Analogical innovations as symptoms of changes in interpretation168

3．Analogy as a principle of renovation and conservation170

CHAPTER Ⅵ．Popular etymology172

CHAPTER Ⅶ．Agglutination.175

1．Definition175

2．Agglutination and analogy176

CHAPTER Ⅷ．Diachronic units,identities and realities178

APPENDICES182

A．Subjective and objective analysis182

B．Subjective analysis and determination of units smaller than the word183

C．Etymology187

PART FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL LINGUISTICS189

CHAPTER Ⅰ．On the diversity of languages189

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Geographical diversity:its complexity.192

1．Coexistence of several languages in the seme place192

2．Literary language and local dialect193

CHAPTER Ⅲ．Causes of geographical diversity.196

1．Time,the essential cause196

2．Linguistic areas affected by time198

3．Dialects have no natural boundaries200

4．Languages have no natural boundaries202

CHAPTER Ⅳ．Propagation of linguistic waves.204

1．Force of intercourse and parochialism204

2．A single principle underlying both forces206

3．Linguistic differentiation in separate areas206

PART FIVE QUESTIONS OF RETROSPECTIVE LINGUISTICS CONCLUSION211

CHAPTER Ⅰ．The two perspectives of diachronic linguistics211

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Earliest languages and prototypes214

CHAPTER Ⅲ．Reconstructions.217

1．Their nature and purpose217

2．Degree of certainty of reconstructions219

CHAPTER Ⅳ．Linguistic evidence in anthropology and prehistory.221

1．Languages and races221

2．Ethnicity222

3．Linguistic paleontology223

4．Linguistic types and group mentality225

CHAPTER Ⅴ．Language families and linguistic types227

INDEX231

文库索引237