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1.INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW1

2.THE CONTEXT OF RECENT POLICY DEVELOPMENTS3

2.1.Notable shipping incidents3

2.2.The regulatory response5

2.2.1.The response from the International Maritime Organization5

2.2.1.1.The IMO Guidelines on places of refuge for ships in need of assistance5

2.2.1.2.The rejection by the IMO Legal Committee of a treaty initiative7

2.2.2.The response from regional organisations9

2.2.2.1.The EU VTMIS Directive9

2.2.2.2.Operational agreements within regional coastal State organisations12

2.2.3.The response from States13

2.3.Uncertainty about international law on the accommodation of ships in need of assistance in places of refuge14

3.CURRENT INTERNATIONAL LAW ON THE ACCOMMODATIONOFSHIPS IN DISTRESS IN PLACES OF REFUGE17

3.1.Methodology and classification of relevant legal sources17

3.2.Summary of the right of access under customary law21

3.3.Conventions26

3.3.1.The International Regime of Maritime Ports26

3.3.2.The Geneva Territorial Sea Convention28

3.3.2.1.Importance28

3.3.2.2.State sovereignty29

3.3.2.3.Instances of innocent passage29

3.3.2.4.Stopping and anchoring in the territorial sea30

3.3.2.5.Innocence of passage33

3.3.2.6.Measures by coastal States34

3.3.2.7.Meaning of French"relache forcee"36

3.3.2.8.Ships already distressed before entering the territorial sea37

3.3.2.9.Laws and regulations of the coastal State39

3.3.2.10.Suspension of innocent passage40

3.3.2.11.Charges levied upon ships40

3.3.2.12.Conclusion40

3.3.3.The UN Law of the Sea Convention41

3.3.3.1.General scope of the Convention41

3.3.3.2.Overview of relevant rules42

3.3.3.3.State sovereignty42

3.3.3.4.Instances of innocent passage42

3.3.3.5.Stopping and anchoring in the territorial sea44

3.3.3.6.Innocence of passage47

3.3.3.7.Laws and regulations of the coastal State49

3.3.3.8.Measures by coastal States49

3.3.3.9.The International Law Association's position on casualty ships52

3.3.3.10.Suspension of innocent passage55

3.3.3.11.Charges levied upon ships56

3.3.3.12.Duty to render assistance57

3.3.3.13.Protection of the marine environment58

3.3.3.14.Enforcement immunity of ships in distress61

3.3.3.15.Conclusion61

3.3.4.The Intervention Convention62

3.3.5.The London Salvage Convention68

3.3.6.Other relevant multilateral conventions70

3.3.7.Bilateral friendship,commerce and navigation treaties74

3.3.8.Treaties on international waterways77

3.4.Case law78

3.4.1.Significance and selection78

3.4.2.The Eleanor(1809)79

3.4.3.The Schooner Exchange(1812)80

3.4.4.The New York(1818)81

3.4.5.The North Atlantic Coast Fisheries Case(1910)81

3.4.6.The Rebecca(1929)82

3.4.7.The Stanislaw Dubois(1981)83

3.4.8.Poulsen(The Onkel Sam)(1992)85

3.4.9.The Frontier(1992)86

3.4.10.The Toledo(1995)87

3.4.11.The Long Lin(1995)90

3.4.12.Synthesis93

3.5.The IMO Guidelines on places of refuge for ships in need of assistance94

3.6.European law99

3.6.1.European Union Law99

3.6.2.Other regional European law109

3.7.National regulations and administrative practice111

3.8.General principles of law117

3.9.Legal doctrine117

3.9.1.Classification of available material117

3.9.2.Legal doctrine tending towards an absolute right of entry121

3.9.3.Legal doctrine tending towards a qualified right of entry132

3.9.4.Legal doctrine tending towards an absolute right of refusal140

3.9.5.Viewpoints in some recent in-depth studies141

3.9.5.1.Hydeman and Berman(1960)141

3.9.5.2.Devine(1991 and 1996)143

3.9.5.3.Lagoni(1988 and 2001)144

3.9.5.4.Van Hooydonk(2003)145

3.9.5.5.Somers(2004)148

3.9.5.6.Chircop(2006)149

3.9.5.7.Gadow-Stephani(2006)151

3.9.5.8.Nordquist(2007)152

3.9.5.9.Ringbom(2008)154

3.10.Synthesis and attempt at elucidation155

3.10.1.The state of international law155

3.10.2.Present-day relevance of the right of entry156

3.10.3.The need for a precise delineation of the right of refusal162

3.10.3.1.Legal uncertainty in respect of the foundations and outlines of the right of refusal162

3.10.3.2.First position:refusal of entry on the basis of"circumstances precluding wrongfulness"164

3.10.3.3.Second position:refusal of entry integrated into the primary legal regime of the accommodation of ships in distress167

3.10.3.4.Conclusion:the customary law outlines of the right of refusal of entry and the powers of judicial review170

3.11.Towards a codification of a presumption of entry and principles of good administration177

4.THE GENESIS,NECESSITY AND STATUS OF THE CMI DRAFT CONVENTION179

4.1.Genesis of the CMI Draft Convention179

4.1.1.CMI activities before the Athens Conference179

4.1.2.The CMI Conference in Athens180

4.2.Necessity of the CMI Draft Convention182

4.2.1.Demonstration of a"compelling need"182

4.2.2.Absence of well-founded objections to a treaty regulation187

4.3.Status of the CMI Draft Convention191

4.3.1."Draft Instrument"or"Draft Convention"?191

4.3.2.Relationship between the CMI Draft Convention and other sources of law192

4.3.2.1.A distinction based on the current status of the instrument192

4.3.2.2.The CMI Draft Convention as a codification instrument adopted by an NGO192

4.3.2.3.The CMI Draft Convention after its entry into force as an international treaty195

4.3.2.3.1.Relation to national law195

4.3.2.3.2.Relation to other international instruments196

4.3.2.3.3.Relation to European Union law198

5.CONTENT OF THE CMI DRAFT CONVENTION203

5.1.Structure of the CMI Draft Convention203

5.2.Analysis of the preamble203

5.2.1.First recital:the importance of the availability of places of refuge204

5.2.2.Second recital:the necessity of taking into account all interests involved204

5.2.3.Third recital:the necessity of a clarification of the international liability regime205

5.2.4.Fourth recital:uncertainty regarding the right of access under customary law206

5.2.5.Fifth recital:reference to IMO instruments207

5.2.6.Sixth recital:the need for a legally binding instrument regarding the granting or refusal of entry to ships in need of assistance209

5.2.7.Seventh recital:purpose of the CMI Draft Convention209

5.3.Analysis of the material provisions211

5.3.1.Article 1:Definitions211

5.3.1.1.General tenor211

5.3.1.2.The notion of a"ship"211

5.3.1.3.The notion of a"ship in need of assistance"214

5.3.1.4.The notion of a"place of refuge"224

5.3.1.5.The notion of a"competent authority"227

5.3.1.6.The notion of an"assessment"232

5.3.1.7.The notion of a"ship owner"234

5.3.1.8.The notion of a"registered owner"235

5.3.2.Article 2:Object and purpose235

5.3.3.Article 3:Legal obligation to grant access to a place of refuge237

5.3.3.1.Three alternative wordings237

5.3.3.2.The obligation in principle to grant access237

5.3.3.3.First option:refusal of access on grounds of a risk assessment240

5.3.3.4.Second option:refusal of access on grounds of a risk assessment and taking into account financial securities246

5.3.3.5.Third option:refusal of access on grounds of a risk assessment or the absence of financial securities248

5.3.3.6.Relationship to international customary law concerning access to places of refuge250

5.3.3.7.The obligation to seek alternative solutions253

5.3.3.8.Reservation regarding the competent authority's right to make a claim for salvage256

5.3.4.Article 4:Immunity from liability where access is granted reasonably259

5.3.5.Article 5:Liability to another State,a third party,the ship owner or salvor where refusal of access is unreasonable265

5.3.5.1.Scope of the liability265

5.3.5.2.Right to sue270

5.3.5.3.Liable authorities272

5.3.5.4.Burden of proof273

5.3.5.5.Breach of duty on the part of the competent authority under the marine pollution liability conventions279

5.3.6.Article 6:Reasonable conduct282

5.3.7.Article 7:Guarantees287

5.3.7.1.The necessity of a regulation287

5.3.7.2.First option:limitation of financial security to a reasonable amount not exceeding the LLMC limit for property claims292

5.3.7.3.Second option:limitation of financial security to a reasonable amount not exceeding the LLMC limit for property claims and a reasonable additional amount for wreck removal307

5.3.7.4.Third option:limitation of the financial security to a reasonable amount308

5.3.8.Article 8:Plans to accommodate ships in need of assistance309

5.3.9.Article 9:Identification of competent authority313

5.4.Matters not regulated by the CMI Draft Convention315

6.COMPARISON OF THE CMI DRAFT CONVENTION WITH THE EUROPEAN REGIME OF PLACES OF REFUGE323

6.1.Similarities323

6.2.Differences324

7.THE FURTHER ROLE OF THE CMI DRAFT CONVENTION327

7.1.Discussion as a draft convention by the Legal Committee of the International Maritime Organization327

7.2.Possible impact on international customary law,regional regulations,operational decision-making and case law329

8.CONCLUSIONS331

8.1.Current state of international law331

8.2.Significance of the CMI Draft Convention331

9.APPENDICES333

9.1.CMI documents333

9.1.1.The CMI Draft Instrument333

9.1.1.1.CMI Draft Instrument on Places of Refuge(final version of 17 October 2008)333

9.1.1.2.Resolution adopted by the 39th CMI Conference in connection with the Draft Instrument on Places of Refuge-Athens 17 October 2008337

9.1.2.Other CMI documents337

9.1.2.1.Draft version of the CMI Draft Instrument on Places of Refuge as submitted to the CMI Cape Town Colloquium(2006)337

9.1.2.2.Draft version of the CMI Draft Instrument on Places of Refuge as submitted to the CMI Athens Conference(2008)341

9.1.2.3.Final Report of the CMI to the Legal Committee of the IMO(IMO Doc.LEG 95/9,23 January 2009)346

9.2.IMO Documents356

9.2.1.IMO Guidelines on places of refuge for ships in need of assistance356

9.2.2.IMO Guidelines on the control of ships in an emergency364

9.2.3.Report of the Legal Committee on the work of its ninety-fifth session(IMO Doc.LEG 95/10,22 April 2009)(excerpt)369

9.3.EU Documents370

9.3.1.Directive 2002/59/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 June 2002 establishing a Community vessel traffic monitoring and information system and repealing Council Directive 93/75/EEC370

9.3.2.European Parliament Resolution on improving safety at sea in response to the Prestige accident(2003/2066(INI))387

9.3.3.Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2002/59/EC establishing a Community vessel traffic monitoring and information system(COM/2005/0589 final)396

9.3.4.Directive 2009/17/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 amending Directive 2002/59/EC establishing a Community vessel traffic monitoring and information system418

9.3.5.Consolidated version of Directive 2002/59/EC establishing a Community vessel traffic monitoring and information system433

9.4.Summary of international law regimes of ships in need of assistance459

Index461