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CHAPTER 1DETERMINING ADEQUATE PERSPECTIVES1

1. The Challenge of Improving Conflict Resolution1

2. Definition of Terms2

2.1 Conflict and Dispute2

2.1.1 Conflict2

2.1.2 Dispute3

2.1.2.1 Definition in the Jurisprudence of PCIJ and ICJ3

2.1.2.2 Defiinition in Academic Writing5

2.1.2.3 The Aspect of Justiciability6

2.1.3 Separation of Dispute from Conflict？6

2.2 International Character9

2.2.1 Traditional Interstate Conflicts10

2.2.2 Involvement of International Actors Other than States10

2.2.3 Subject Matter of International Quality11

2.2.4 Processes of Internationalization of Conflicts11

2.2.5 Conclusion13

2.3 Settlement and Resolution13

2.3.1 Method of Reaction14

2.3.2 Level or Substantive Depth14

2.3.3 Conclusion15

2.4 Intervention15

2.4.1 Definitions15

2.4.2 Conclusion18

2.5 Definition of Third Par/Forms of Intervention / Interest18

2.5.1 Principal Party and Third Party18

2.5.2 Horizontal or Vertical Intervention19

2.5.3 Concept of Interests20

3. Possible Departure Points21

3.1 Focus on Existing Legal Provisions23

3.1.1 Background23

3.1.2 Illustrations25

3.1.2.1 Dispute Settlement System of the UN25

3.1.2.2 Specialized Regime： UNCLOS Dispute Settlement27

3.1.2.3 Specialized Regime： WTO Dispute Settlement29

3.1.3 Conclusion32

3.2 Focus on Conflict Subject Matter32

3.2.1 Background32

3.2.2 Illustration33

3.2.2.1 Environmental Conflicts33

3.2.2.2 Ethnic Conflicts37

3.2.2.3 Territory and Boundary Conflicts40

3.2.3 Conclusion43

3.3 Focus on Regional Approaches to Conflict44

3.3.1 Background44

3.3.2 Illustration： Conflict in Africa46

3.3.2.1 Diffcult Geopolitical Preconditions46

3.3.2.2 Organization of African Unity（Now African Union）48

3.3.2.3 Attempts to Identify the Core of African Conflict： Identity Issues49

3.3.3 Conclusion50

3.4 Focus on Contemporary Conflict Context51

3.4.1 Background51

3.4.2 Illustration： Observations on Conflict52

3.4.2.1 Emergence of Non-State Actors52

3.4.2.2 Internationalization of Conflict54

3.4.2.3 Multipolar Nature of Conflicts55

3.4.2.4 Emergence of Interested International Community55

3.4.2.5 Likelihood of Interventions56

3.4.2.6 Global Externalities56

3.4.2.7 Global Communication Technology57

3.4.2.8 Ideological Elements of Conflict58

3.4.2.9 Intercultural Elements of Conflict59

3.4.3 Conclusion60

3.5 Comparison of the Four Approaches61

4. Summary and Further Perspective62

CHAPTER 2 THIRD PARTIES AND CONFLICTS65

1. Complex Interdependence and Conflict65

1.1 Structural Elements of Interdependence66

1.1.1 Normative Element： Legal Orders and New Obligations66

1.1.2 Economic Element： Integration of Economic Systems72

1.1.3 Cultural Element： The Spreading of Images and Values73

1.1.4 Value-Related Element： Human Rights and Democratization73

1.1.5 Connecting Conflict and Interdependence75

1.2 Third Party Conflict Intervention76

1.2.1 Conflict-Related Paradigms Under Review76

1.2.1.1 Bilateral， State-Focused Definition of Conflict76

1.2.1.2 Symbolic Role of International Communi in Conflicts76

1.2.1.3 Redefinition of （Non-）Intervention77

1.2.2 Resulting Focus of Analysis77

2. Developing a Working Definition of a Third Par78

2.1 Traditional Approach to Defining a Third Party79

2.1.1 Vienna Convention on Law of Treaties80

2.1.2 International Disputes and Adjudication80

2.2 Contextual Approach to Defining Third Party81

2.2.1 Treaties and Third Parties81

2.2.2 Conflicts and Third Parties83

2.3 Tentative Working Definition of Third Party85

2.3.1 ‘Contemporization’ of the Term Third Party85

2.3.2 The Concept of Interests86

2.3.3 Working Definition87

3. Structuring Third Party Intervention in Conflict87

3.1 Defining Categories of Third Party Conflict Intervention88

3.2 Comments on the Contemporaty System90

3.2.1 Institutionalized Intervention and the ICJ91

3.2.1.1 Vertical Intervention- Prevalence of Consensus91

3.2.1.2 Horizontal Intervention - Articles 62 and 6391

3.2.1.3 Horizontal Intervention：Indispensable Third Parties？97

3.2.1.4 The Amicus Curiae Debate99

3.2.1.5 Implications for the ICJ102

3.2.2 Non-Institutionalized Conflict Resolution103

3.2.2.1 Vertical Third Party Intervention104

3.2.2.2 Horizontal Third Party Intervention105

3.3 Conclusion - The Adaptation Gap105

4. Demands for Adequate Third Party Conflict Roles106

4.1 Systemic Perspective of Formulating Concrete Demands106

4.2 Concrete Elements of Third Party Conflict Intervention107

4.2.1 Detecting All Relevant Third Party Interests in Conflicts107

4.2.2 Ensuring Explicit Role of International Community107

4.2.3 Facilitating Horizontal Conflict Intervention108

4.2.4 Facilitating Vertical， Constructive Conflict Intervention108

4.2.5 Clarifying Form of Intervention109

5. Summary and Further Perspective109

CHAPTER 3 ADJUDICATION AND ADR113

1. Procedural Forum for Structural Changes113

2. Transfer： Domestic and International ADR114

2.1 Different Spheres of ADR115

2.2 Guiding Aspects of International Conflicts116

2.2.1 Effects of Sovereignty116

2.2.2 Nature of Parties117

2.2.3 Special Regimes： Human Rights118

2.2.4 The Time Factor119

2.3 Conclusion119

3. Spectrum of Peaceful Conflict Resolution Methods119

3.1 Existing Spectrum of Third Party Roles in Conflict119

3.2 Basic Differentiation120

3.2.1 Adjudication and Judicial Proceedings121

3.2.2 ADR Proceedings122

3.2.3 Arbitration and Quasi-Judicial Proceedings123

4. The Role of Adjudication in International Conflicts125

4.1 Observations about The International Court of Justice125

4.2 Advantages of Adjudication in National Legal Systems126

4.2.1 Disposition of the Dispute127

4.2.2 Principled and Rational Process Parameters127

4.2.3 Impartiality of the Judiciary127

4.2.4 Precedential and System-Reinforcing Effects127

4.2.5 Public Incentive to Private Settlement127

4.3 Advantages of Adjudication in International Legal System128

4.3.1 Transfer of Insights from Domestic Adjudication128

4.3.2 Specific Advantages of International Adjudication133

4.4 Limits of Adjudication in National Legal Systems134

4.4.1 Zero-Sum or Win-Lose Nature134

4.4.2 Unpredictability134

4.4.3 Imposition of Judgment135

4.4.4 Adversarial Escalatoty Nature135

4.4.5 Artificial Reduction of Complexity135

4.5 Limits of International Adjudication137

4.5.1 Transfer from Domestic Adjudication137

4.5.2 Specific Limits of International Adjudication143

4.5.2.1 Proliferation of Tribunals143

4.5.2.2 Unwillingness of States to Submit144

4.5.2.3 Adverse Precedential Effects145

4.5.2.4 Lack of Enforcement Mechanisms145

4.5.2.5 Costs， Inconvenience and Delay146

4.5.2.6 Threshold for Small State Applicants147

4.5.2.7 Lack of Standing of Non-State Actors148

4.5.2.8 Incapacity as Fact-Finding Organ149

4.5.3 Limits of International Adjudication in Violent Conflicts150

4.5.3.1 Participants150

4.5.3.2 Substance of Conflict150

4.5.3.3 Sensitivity of Defense Issues151

4.5.3.4 Overlap with UN Security Council Role151

4.5.3.5 Limited Fact-Finding Capacity151

4.6 Comments on International Arbitration151

4.7 Conclusion153

5. The Role of ADR in International Conflicts154

5.1 Background Observations154

5.1.1 International Diplomacy and ADR154

5.1.2 The Emergence of Conflict Science and ADR155

5.1.2.1 Emergence of ADR in the United States156

5.1.2.2 Multidisciplinary Conflict Resolution Theory156

5.1.3 Cognitive Psychology and Negotiation Analysis158

5.1.3.1 Cognitive Psychology159

5.1.3.2 Negotiation Analysis162

5.1.3.3 Comment163

5.2 Advantages of ADR in Domestic Settings164

5.2.1 Party Autonomy164

5.2.2 Win-Win Character164

5.2.3 Enduring， Interest-Based Settlements165

5.2.4 Structure for Coping with Complexi165

5.2.5 Working with Cognitive Errors166

5.2.6 Process and Outcome Flexibili166

5.2.7 Linking Different Issues167

5.2.8 Costs167

5.2.9 Conflidentiali167

5.2.10 Relationship Aspect167

5.3 Advantages of ADR in the International Setting167

5.3.1 Transfer of Insights from Domestic Settings167

5.3.2 Specific Advantages of International ADR170

5.4 Limits of ADR in Domestic Settings171

5.4.1 Privatization or Denial of Justice171

5.4.2 Lack of Procedural Clarity172

5.4.3 Undercutting of Protective Minimum Standards172

5.4.4 Lack of Enforcement Framework172

5.4.5 Prejudicing Own Case for Adjudication172

5.4.6 Lack of Transparency172

5.4.7 Power Asymmetries173

5.5 Limits of International ADR173

5.5.1 Transfer of Insights from Domestic ADR174

5.5.2 Specific Limits of International ADR175

5.5.2.1 Prevalence of Bias and Power in Intermediary Efforts175

5.5.2.2 Danger of War176

5.5.2.3 Cultural Clashes176

5.5.2.4 Non-Recognition176

5.5.3 Limits of ADR in Violent Conflicts177

5.6 Conclusion177

6. Synopsis of International ADR Techniques178

6.1 Status Quo of Negotiation in the ADR Context178

6.2 Non-Adjudicative Third Party Functions181

6.2.1 Mediation182

6.2.2 Conciliation183

6.2.3 Inquiry and Fact-Finding185

6.2.4 Good Offices187

6.2.5 Recourse to Regional Organizations188

6.2.6 Consultation189

6.2.7 Track Two Diplomacy： Problem Solving Workshops191

6.2.8 Truth Commissions193

6.3 Structuring and Reducing the Spectrum194

7. Consequences195

7.1 Categories and Parameters195

7.2 Suitability of International Adjudication196

7.2.1 Clear Definition of Conflict as Dispute196

7.2.2 Outcome Indifference196

7.2.3 Refusal of Conflict Parties to Communicate197

7.2.4 Decisive Legal Background197

7.2.5 Buying Time197

7.2.6 Human Rights Background： Minimum Guarantee Contexts197

7.2.7 Specific Regions198

7.3 Suitability of International ADR198

7.3.1 Multipolar Conflicts198

7.3.2 Relative Power Parity198

7.3.3 Relevance of （State and Non-State） Third Parties199

7.3.4 Long-Term Relationship199

7.3.5 Opportunity for Issue Linkage199

7.4 ADR as Procedural Forum for Structural Changes199

7.4.1 Idea of Integrated Models199

7.4.2 Focus on ADR and Mediation201

7.4.2.1 Integration of Numerous and Various Actors202

7.4.2.2 Relevance of Interests202

7.4.2.3 Reflection of Substantive and Social Complexity202

7.4.2.4 Reflection Tradeoff Intervention / Sovereignty203

7.4.2.5 Allowing Adequate Role of Third Parties203

7.4.2.6 Allowing Particular Role of International Community203

7.4.2.7 Responding to Cognitive Barriers205

7.4.2.8 Responding to Intercultural Elements205

7.5 Conclusion206

8. Summary and Further Perspective206

CHAPTER 4 ANALYZING INTERNATIONAL MEDIATION209

1. Conceptual Diversity - Conceptual Confusion209

2. Scenarios Referred to as ‘International Mediations’211

2.1 Middle East Conflict211

2.1.1 Camp David212

2.1.2 Oslo Accords214

2.2 Bosnia215

3. Mediation Activities within UN Context217

3.1 UN Mediation： Status Quo and Experience217

3.1.1 Exceptional Status218

3.1.2 UN Mediation Mechanisms and Actors220

3.1.3 Observations on Cases， Successes and Failures222

3.2 Internal UN Mediation Structure224

3.3 Recent Initiatives225

3.3.1 An Agenda for Peace225

3.3.2 Panel on UN Peace Operations226

3.3.3 High-Level Panel on Threats， Challenges and Change227

3.3.4 2005 World Summit Outcome228

3.4 Conclusion229

4. Concepts of Categorizing International Mediation231

4.1 Small Shared Conceptual Ground231

4.2 Different Concepts of Categorizing Mediation231

4.2.1 Louis Kriesberg232

4.2.1.1 Traditional Mediation233

4.2.1.2 Problem-Solving Mediation233

4.2.2 Baruch Bush and Folger： Transformative Mediation233

4.2.3 Marieke Kleiboer234

4.2.3.1 Power-Brokerage234

4.2.3.2 Domination235

4.2.3.3 Problem-Solving235

4.2.3.4 Restructuring Relationships236

4.2.4 Conny Peck236

4.2.4.1 Power-Based236

4.2.4.2 Rights-Based236

4.2.4.3 Interest-Based236

4.2.5 Touval and Zartman237

4.2.5.1 Facilitation237

4.2.5.2 Formulation237

4.2.5.3 Manipulation238

4.2.6 Implications for Categorizing Mediation238

4.3 Spectrum of Mediation Forms239

5. Focus on Interest-Based， Facilitative Mediation242

5.1 Excluding Power Mediation242

5.2 The Essential Role of Parties’ Interests244

5.3 The Essential Role of Impartiality and Facilitation246

5.4 Model of Interest-Based， Facilitative Mediation246

6. Conceptual Parameters of Interest-Based， Facilitative Mediation247

6.1 Attributes247

6.1.1 Neutrality and Impartiality247

6.1.2 Mediator Strength and Resources252

6.1.3 Standing/Rank255

6.1.4 Degree of Cultural Proximity256

6.1.5 Conclusion257

6.2 （Institutional） Background of Mediator258

6.2.1 Individual Person（s）258

6.2.2 Representative（s） of States259

6.2.3 Representative（s） of Regional Organizations260

6.2.4 Representative（s） of United Nations261

6.2.5 Representative（s） of other Non-State Entities263

6.2.6 Implications for Interest-Based， Facilitative Mediation263

6.3 Parties264

6.3.1 Nature of Parties264

6.3.2 Representation of Entities Involved265

6.3.3 Number of Parties266

6.4 Time of Intervention268

6.5 Mediation Success270

6.6 Phase Model， Mediator Roles and Techniques273

6.6.1 Phase Model of Interest-Based， Facilitative Mediation273

6.6.2 Resulting Mediator Roles and Techniques277

7. Summary and Further Perspective280

CHAPTER 5 IMPLEMENTATION OF OBSERVATIONS283

1. Methods to Realize Change283

1.1 Methods to Inceuence Behavior284

1.1.1 Normative Approaches284

1.1.2 Economic Rationale285

1.1.2.1 Effective Threat of Sanctions286

1.1.2.2 Positive Incentives287

1.1.3 Initially Facilitative Regimes288

1.2 Discussion and Implications289

2. Example： Mediation and Transitional Justice292

2.1 Background292

2.2 Application of Mediation in the Transitional Justice Context293

2.2.1 Mediating Peace and Justice293

2.2.1.1 Role of Mediation in the Justice Process294

2.2.1.2 Role of Mediation in Establishing Facts295

2.2.1.3 Role of Mediation in Determining Reparations295

2.2.1.4 Role of Mediation in the Process of Healing296

2.2.1.5 Role of Mediation in Institutional Reforms296

2.2.2 Mediating the Framework of Intervention296

2.2.2.1 Coordinating the Actors297

2.2.2.2 Designing the Process297

2.3 Eliciting Interests and Defining Priorities297

2.3.1 Matrix of Interests298

2.3.1.1 Interests of the Individual Victims298

2.3.1.2 Interests of the Society in Transition299

2.3.1.3 Interests of the International Communiry300

2.3.1.4 Interests of Former Perpetrators300

2.3.2 Observations301

2.3.3 Prioritizing Competing Interests302

2.4 Conclusion303

3. Aims， Principles， and Suggestions for Implementation304

3.1 Establishing a More Holistic Perception of Conflict305

3.2 Establishing a More Sophisticated Perception of ADR305

3.3 Conceptualizing Interplay between Adjudication and ADR305

3.3.1 Structured and Informed Choice between Techniques307

3.3.2 Proposed Sequence of Mechanisms307

3.3.3 Strengthening an Integrated System of Intervention308

3.4 Design Principles for Conflict-Resolution Institutions309

3.5 Improving UN Dispute Settlement313

3.5.1 Streamlining and Strengthening Existing System313

3.5.1.1 Limiting the Free Choice of Means313

3.5.1.2 Focus on Specific Model： Interest-Based Orientation314

3.5.2 Enhancing the Role of UN Mediation Support Unit314

3.5.3 Establishing Conflict Prevention and Resolution Centers？317

3.5.4 Better Coordination within UN318

3.5.5 Extensive Knowledge Sharing320

3.6 Fostering Interest-Based Mediation in General322

3.6.1 Research on Specific Conflict（Resolution） Scenarios322

3.6.2 Codifying Procedure of Interest-Based Mediation323

3.6.3 Codifying Code of Conduct for Mediators324

3.6.4 Teaching Mediation Skills325

3.6.5 Establishing Mediation Networks325

4. Summary327

CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY329

1. Summary329

2. Collection of Propositions Resulting From This Book331

3. Zusammenfassung339

4. Thesenhafte Zusammenstellung der Ergebnisse342

INDEX351