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PART ONE BASIC CONCEPTS AND CONTEXT REGARDING INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION1

Chapter Ⅰ The Nature of International Environmental Issues5

A.Interdependence5

B.Human Population18

C.Social and Cultural Context26

D.Economic Context： Poverty and Economic Disparities33

E.Political Context37

F.Sustainable Development and the Millennium Development Goals44

Chapter Ⅱ The Philosophical Framework53

A.The Intergenerational Dimension53

1.Intergenerational Environmental Issues53

2.Theoretical Perspectives58

3.Implementation of Intergenerational Equity66

4.Judicial Application of Intergenerational Equity68

a.International Court of Justice68

b.Supreme Court of the Philippines71

c.High Court of Kenya73

5.Parliamentary Implementation74

B.Relationship of Humans to the Natural System74

1.Flora74

2.Fauna80

Chapter Ⅲ Rational Decisionmaking and Its Constraints：Economics， Risk， and Uncertainty83

A.What Causes Environmental Degradation？83

B.Bearing the Cost of Externalities85

1.The Theoretical Basis of the Polluter Pays Principle：Externality Theory85

2.Should States Pay？90

3.Externality Theory in Practice93

C.Risk and Uncertainty95

1.The Problem of Scientifiic Uncertainty95

2.Risk Analysis and International Environmental Law96

a.The Process of Risk Assessment96

b.Risk Assessment and Risk Management99

c.Risk Assessment and Management Techniques102

3.Genetically Modifiied Foods and Climate Change as a Case Study for Risk Assessment under Conditions of Uncertainty104

D.Cost-Benefit Analysis113

1.Theory and Historic Practice113

2.Some Hard Questions116

3.Cost Benefit Analysis Applied118

4.The Problem of Soft Benefiits124

a.What Are They？124

b.Valuation of Non-Market Values127

E.Alternatives to Benefiit Cost Analysis130

Chapter Ⅳ The International Legal System and Environmental Protection135

A.International Law136

1.General Considerations136

2.Customary Law138

3.Treaties144

a.General144

b.Treary-Making145

（i） The International Process145

（ii） The Domestic Process147

（iii） Options Available to Treaty Parties147

（iv） Living Treaties148

4.General Principles of Law150

5.International Administrative Law151

6.Decisions by International Organizations152

7.Other Norms and Instruments153

a.Soft Law153

b.Other Legal Statements156

8.Relationship Between International and Domestic Law157

B.Avoidance and Settlement of Disputes160

1.Consultation and Exchange of Views161

2.Negotiations162

3.Enquiry or Fact-Finding163

4.Good Offiices and Mediation164

5.Conciliation165

6.Arbitration166

a.Agreement to Arbitrate166

b.Establishment of an Arbitral Tribunal168

c.The Proceeding168

d.Institutionalization170

e.Evaluation of Arbitration as a Dispute Settlement Method170

f.Environmentally Relevant Examples171

7.International Courts171

a.Locating a Competent Court171

b.Consent to Litigation173

c.Composition of the World Court173

d.Procedures of the World Court173

e.Evaluation of ICJ Litigation as a Disputes Settlement Method174

f.The Advisory Competence of the World Court175

8.Resort to Regional Agencies or Other International Organizations176

C.Compliance with International Law177

1.Voluntary Compliance177

2.Sanctions178

a.Unilateral Sanctions178

b.Collective Sanctions179

c.Publicity180

3.Inducing Compliance and Implementation180

D.The International Institutional Framework182

1.Background： The Nature of International Organizations182

2.United Nations Organs with Environmental Functions182

a.Primarily Environmental Institutions—United Nations Environment Programme （UNEP）183

b.Institutions to Integrate Environmental Policies with Other Policies185

（i） Commission on Sustainable Development （CSD）185

（ii） High-Level Advisory Board on Sustainable Development186

c.UN-Related Treaty Bodies186

d.Environmental Conferences187

（i） General Environmental Conferences187

（ii） Specifiic Environment-Related Conferences188

3.International Nongovernmental Organizations189

4.Summary and Conclusions190

PART TWO POLLUTION CONTROL： GENERAL AND SPECIFIC NORMS193

Chapter Ⅴ Accountability And Compliance199

A.Background： Basic Principles of State Responsibility199

B.General Principles of International Responsibilityfor Environmental Harm204

C.Applicability of General Principles of Accountabilityto Developing Countries220

D.The Global Commons221

1.Case Study： The Wreck of the Bahia Paraiso222

2.Remedies for Harm to the Commons222

E.Nonconfrontational Approaches to Compliance224

1.The Role of International Institutions224

2.New Treaty Approaches to the Problem of Compliance226

F.Private Remedies244

1.General Principles， International Instruments， and National Legislation244

2.Case Study： Poro V.Houillieres du Bassin du Lorraine （Hbl）248

G.Criminal Responsibility251

Chapter Ⅵ General Norms of Prevention257

A.Substantive Norms259

1.The Obligation Not to Cause Transboundary Environmental Harm259

2.The “Precautionary Principle”304

3.Sustainable Development322

B.Procedural Norms332

1.Prior Notifiication， Consultation， and Negotiation333

2.Environmental Impact Assessment360

3.Cooperation365

4.Summary367

C.Application of Environmental Norms to Developing Countries372

Chapter Ⅶ Environmental Disasters385

A.Case Studies386

1.Seveso386

2.Bhopal390

3.Basel393

4.The Breakup of the Prestige395

B.General Norms Applicable to Environmental Emergencies398

1.Overview398

2.Principle 18， Rio Declaration407

3.Article 9， Montreal Rules407

4.Article 19， Brundtland Commission Experts Group Report409

C.Contingency Planning and Hazard Management410

D.Provision of Relief to Accident Victims414

E.Norms Applicable to Nuclear Accidents419

1.Case Study： Chernobyl419

2.The Legal Response424

Chapter Ⅷ Human Rights and Environment429

A.Introduction to Human Rights Law429

B.Human Rights and Environmental Objectives433

C.The Interrelationship between Human Rights and Environmental Protection438

D.Emergence of a Right to a Clean Environment439

1.A New Human Right440

2.Theoretical Bases441

3.Articulations of a Human Right443

a.International Instruments443

b.Regional Instruments445

c.National Laws449

E.Application of Existing Human Rights452

1.Substantive Rights452

2.Procedural Guarantees456

F.The Nature of the Right458

1.Form and Substance458

2.Content of the Right459

3.Context of the Right461

a.Indigenous Peoples462

b.Environmental Refugees479

c.A Human Right to Water？485

d.Community-Based Property Rights and Community Right to Prior Informed Consent499

Chapter Ⅸ Regional Transboundary Pollution501

A.Case Study： Acid Rain501

1.Canada-United States Acid Rain502

a.Background502

b.The 1991 Agreement505

c.Reviews of the 1991 Agreement507

2.Acid Rain within the European Union Region508

3.Transboundary Pollution in ASEAN： Cooperative Approaches521

B.Pollution of International Watercourses523

1.Introduction to the Problem523

2.General Principles527

3.Case Study： Protection of the Great Lakes Ecosystem536

Chapter Ⅹ Controlling Ozone Depletion557

A.The Scientifiic Background558

1.The Ozone Layer558

2.The Antarctic Ozone Hole560

3.Depletion of the Ozone Layer over the Northern Hemisphere561

4.The Chemicals That Cause Ozone Depletion561

B.International Legal Principles563

1.The Historical Perspective563

2.More Recent Principles564

C.The Montreal Protocol564

1.Negotiation of the Protocol573

2.Scientifiic Uncertainry and the Precautionary Approach579

3.Compliance581

D.Implementation of the Montreal Protocol583

1.The United States584

2.The European Community587

3.Other Countries588

Chapter ⅩⅠ Global Climate Change591

A.Assessing Climate Change598

1.The Science of Greenhouse Gases598

2.Human-Induced Climate Change602

3.Greenhouse Gases， Population， and Developing Countries605

B.Responding to Climate Change609

1.Adapting to Climate Change609

2.Responding to the Threat： The Framework Convention on Climate Change613

a.Background613

b.The Climate Change Convention614

c.Emissions Trading to Control Greenhouse Gas Emissions622

d.The Kyoto Protocol628

（i） Developments Leading to the Kyoto Protocol to the FCCC （1997）628

（ii） Introduction to the Kyoto Protocol： Basic Characteristics629

（iii） Quantifiied Emissions Limitation and Reduction Objectives （QELROs or Targets）： Emissions and Sinks639

（iv） Market-Based Mechanisms642

（v） Implementation and Compliance644

（vi） Developing Countries647

（vii） The Drama of the Protocol’s Entry into Force649

（viii） Developments Regarding the Kyoto Protocol Since Its Entry into Force： The Eleventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the FCCC and the First Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol， Montreal， 28 November-9 December 2005650

Chapter ⅩⅡ Protection of the Marine Environment655

A.The Sea and Its Use by Humans656

B.The Law of the Marine Environment657

1.Historical Development657

2.The Approach of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea （UNCLOS）659

C.Ocean Dumping663

1.The London Convention of 1972664

2.The 1996 Protocol to the London Convention666

D.Land-Based Sources of Marine Pollution672

1.The United Nations Convention on the Law672

2.The Montreal Guidelines679

Chapter ⅩⅢ Hazardous Substances： Wastes， Toxic Chemicals， Heavy Metals683

A.Hazardous Wastes683

1.The Prevailing Legal Regime684

2.Defiinition of Hazardous Wastes687

3.Prior Informed Consent690

4.Disposal in an Environmentally Sound Manner691

5.Reimportation of Wastes692

6.Agreements and Arrangements693

B.Hazardous Chemicals695

1.The Problem695

2.International Initiatives707

a.UNEP’s Montevideo Programme708

b.Agenda 21708

c.Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety （IFCS）709

d.Prior Informed Consent （PIC）709

e.Persistent Organic Pollutants （POPs）711

（i） Stockholm Convention711

（ii） Requirements of the Stockholm Convention712

（iii） Regional and Bilateral Approaches713

f.Heavy Metals714

（i） General： LRTAP Protocol on Heavy Metals714

（ii） Lead715

（iii） Mercury716

g.Endocrine Disruptors717

h.SAICM/ICCM718

i.REACH719

j.Framework Convention on Tobacco Control720

Chapter ⅩⅣ Military Activities723

A.Case Study： The 1991 Gulf War724

B.Historical Background730

1.Pre-Modern Times730

2.Mid-Nineteenth to Mid-Twentieth Century730

3.Post-Stockholm Conference and Post-Vietnam War731

C.Current International Law on the Protection of the Environment in Warfare733

1.General Principles Relating to War and the Environment733

2.Environmental Warfare737

3.General Principles of Humanitarian Law738

4.Protection of Property739

5.Prohibitions Against the Unleashing of Dangerous Forces740

6.Protection of Cultural Property741

7.Protection of Particular Environments742

8.Prohibition or Restriction of Certain Weapons743

9.Mines and Other Remnants of War744

10.Prohibition of War and of Preparations Therefor746

11.The Status of General Environmental Protection Treaties in Time of War747

D.Enforcement749

1.Settlement of Disputes750

2.Preparation of Military Manuals751

3.Civil Liability751

4.Criminal Responsibility752

PART THREE NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT757

Chapter ⅩⅤ Norms of Allocation of Use： Fresh Water761

A.The “Harmon Doctrine”763

B.Case Study： The Tigris-Euphrates Basin765

C.General Principles of International Law Concerning the Allocation and Use of International Watercourses767

1.The United Nations Convention767

2.Another Formulation： The International Law Commission’s Berlin Rules776

3.The Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Case795

4.Three Developing Problems： Global Climate Change， International Acquatic Ecosystems and a Human Right to Water804

a.Global Climate Change804

b.Ecosystem Conservation807

c.Human Right to Water813

Chapter ⅩⅥ Biological Diversity817

A.Conservation of Endangered Species819

1.The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species （CITES）819

a.Basic Elements of Convention819

b.The Elephant Controversy823

c.Problems of Implementation of and Compliance with CITES838

2.Regional Agreements841

a.Western Hemisphere/OAS—The Convention on Nature Protections and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere （Oct.12， 1940， effective Apr.30， 1942）841

b.Africa—African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources （Sept.15， 1968， effective June 16， 1969）842

c.Association of South East Asian Nations （ASEAN） Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources， July 9， 1985 （not yet in force）842

d.Europe—Declaration on the Conservation of Flora， Fauna， and Their Habitats， 1988843

3.Protecting Whales and Other Species844

a.Whales844

（i） Introduction844

（ii） Small Cetaceans846

（iii） Scientifiic Research Exception847

（iv） Aboriginal Whaling848

（v） Unilateral Sanctions848

（vi） The Scientifiic Basis for Protecting Whales850

b.Fur Seals852

c.Polar Bears853

d.Migratory Species of Wild Animals853

B.Loss of Biological Diversity： The Problem854

C.Just What Is Biodiversity？858

1.Anticipating Environmental Change860

a.Metapopulations861

b.Dispersal862

c.Habitat Heterogeneity864

2.Speciation as a Source of Biodiversity865

3.Can Loss of Biodiversity Be Adaptive？866

D.Options for Conserving Biological Diversity868

1.National Parks and Wildlife Reserves868

2.Alternative Approaches to Habitat Conservation872

3.The Biodiversity Convention882

4.Ex Situ Conservation： Gene Banks893

E.Forests900

1.Introduction to the Value of Forests as a Natural Resource900

2.Rio Forest Principles903

3.The Intergovernmental Panel on Forests907

4.Trade in Tropical Timber909

Chapter ⅩⅦ Biosafety Regulation915

A.The Health and Environmental Risks of Genetically Modifiied Foods915

B.The EU versus the United States915

PART FOUR TRADE AND FINANCE933

Chapter ⅩⅧ Environment and Trade935

A.Historical Introduction935

B.Dispute Settlement in the World Trade Organization938

C.Domestic Environmental Measures941

1.The Thai Cigarette Case942

2.The Beef Hormones Case943

3.The Reformulated Gasoline Case944

4.The Asbestos Case946

D.Unilateral Measures to Protect Resources Outside National Borders947

1.The Tuna-Dolphin Controversy947

a.United States Actions and Court Decisions947

b.The First GATT Tuna/Dolphin Panel Report （Tuna-Dolphin Ⅰ）950

c.The Secondary Boycott of Yellowfim Tuna（Tuna-Dolphin Ⅱ）955

2.Unilateral Environmental Actions after the Rio Conference957

3.The Shrimp-Turtle Dispute959

E.Multilateral Environmental Agreements983

1.The Multilateral Agreements984

2.The North American Free Trade Agreement and Multilateral Environmental Agreements991

F.Environmental Labeling992

1.Introduction to Eco-Labeling992

2.Environmental Labeling and Trade Regulation994

G.Transnational Environmental Codes998

H.Regional Trade Agreements： The North American Free Trade Agreement1007

Chapter ⅩⅨ Financing Environmental Protection1017

A.Introduction1017

1.Millennium Development Goals1018

2.World Summit on Sustainable Development，Johannesburg 20021018

3.Public-Private Partnership1020

4.The Rio Summit and Agenda 211020

5.Treaties and Other International Instruments1022

B.Multilateral and Bilateral Development Banks1024

1.The World Bank1024

2.Regional Multilateral Development Banks1029

a.African Development Bank1029

b.Asian Development Bank1030

c.Inter-American Development Bank Group1030

d.European Bank for Reconstruction and Development1031

e.North American Development Bank1031

3.Environmental and Social Impacts of Actions Funded by MDBs1032

4.The World Bank Inspection Panel1034

a.The Inspection Panel’s Structure1035

b.Inspection Panel’s Authority1036

c.Determining Whether a Request Is Eligible for an Investigation1036

d.Panel Investigations1037

e.Experience of the Inspection Panel1037

5.Other International Accountability Mechanisms1041

a.The Compliance Advisor/Ombudsman （CAO） of the International Finance Corporation1041

b.The Accountability Mechanism of the Asian Development Bank （ADB）1041

c.The Independent Investigation Mechanism of the Inter-American Development Bank （IDB）1042

d.Others1043

6.World Bank and IFC leanding1044

a.The World Bank’s Country Systems Approach1044

b.Development Policy Lending1045

c.The IFC’s Policy on Social and Environmental Sustainability1046

C.Global Environmental Facility1049

1.Structure1049

2.Project Funding1050

3.Effectiveness of GEF1050

D.Export Credit Agencies1053

E.Debt Relief Approaches1058

1.Debt-for-Nature Swaps1058

2.Enterprise for the Americas Institute1068

F.Treaty-Based Financial Mechanisms and Funds for the Environment1068

G.Other Financing Approaches1084

Appendix Ⅰ.International Environmental Law Research1087

Appendix Ⅱ. International Organizations1093

Appendix Ⅲ.General Steps in Formulating Multilateral Agreements1107

Appendix Ⅳ.International Protection of National Sites： World Heritage and Wetlands1117

Index1131