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Ⅰ Historical Development1

1 From the Beginnings of International Environmental Law to the Stockholm Conference （1972）3

1.1 Early Stages and the Interwar Period3

1.2 From 1945 to 19724

2 From Stockholm to the Rio Conference （1992）7

2.1 The Stockholm Conference7

2.2 Impacts of the North-South Divide on International Environmental Law8

2.3 International Treaty Practice since 197210

2.4 Other Activities11

3 From Rio to the Johannesburg Conference （2002）13

3.1 The Rio Conference13

3.2 Rio Outcomes14

3.2.1 The Concept of ‘Sustainable Development’15

3.2.2 Legally Non-Binding Instruments16

3.2.3 Multilateral Environmental Agreements （MEAs）18

3.2.4 Institutional Innovations18

3.2.5 Rio Evaluated19

3.3 Post-Rio Process19

4 Johannesburg and Beyond23

4.1 The Johannesburg Summit23

4.2 Johannesburg Outcomes23

4.2.1 ‘Type 1 Outcome’： The Political Declaration and the Plan of Implementation24

4.2.2 ‘Type 2 Outcome’： Partnership Initiatives25

4.2.3 Johannesburg Evaluated26

4.3 From Johannesburg to Copenhagen （2009）27

Ⅱ Key Concepts in International Environmental Law31

5 ‘Key Concepts’： Meaning， Underlying Ideas and Classification33

5.1 ‘Key Concepts’ of International Environmental Law： Meaning and Role33

5.2 Ethical Sources of International Environmental Law Key Concepts35

5.2.1 Solidarity35

5.2.2 Justice36

5.3 Classification of International Environmental Law Norms37

6 ‘No Harm’39

6.1 Historical Development39

6.2 Function and Normative Quality40

6.3 Substantive Obligations41

6.3.1 Preventing Significant Transboundary Harm41

6.3.2 No Balancing of Interests42

6.3.3 Disregard of ‘Due Diligence’42

6.3.4 Standard and Burden of Proof43

6.3.5 Status44

6.4 Procedural Obligations44

6.4.1 Contents and Scope44

6.4.2 Status45

6.5 Breach of the ‘No Harm’ Rule45

7 Precautionary Action47

7.1 Historical Development47

7.2 References to Precautionary Action in International Environmental Practice49

7.2.1 Multilateral Environmental Agreements49

7.2.2 Decisions of International Courts51

7.3 Conception and Meaning52

7.4 Effects54

7.5 Normative Quality and Status55

8 Polluter Pays57

8.1 Origin57

8.2 Applicability and Meaning58

8.3 Normative Quality and Status59

9 Common but Differentiated Responsibilities61

9.1 Historical Development of CBDR61

9.2 Underlying Ideas and Conceptual Approach of CBDR63

9.3 Interpretation of CBDR64

9.4 CBDR in International Environmental Treaty Practice66

9.4.1 Reference to CBDR in Single MEAs66

9.4.2 Conditionality of Environmental Protection and Compliance Assistance？69

9.5 Normative Quality and Status69

9.6 CBDR and Future North-South Co-operation70

10 Sustainable Development73

10.1 Historical Development73

10.2 Meaning and Function76

10.3 Normative Quality and Status79

10.4 Sustainable Use—A Special Emanation of Sustainable Development82

10.5 Sustainable Development—An Approach for Bridging the North-South Divide83

Ⅲ Key Issues in Current International Environmental Law85

11 Freshwater Resources87

11.1 Survey87

11.2 Case Law92

11.3 General Instruments94

11.3.1 The UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses94

11.3.2 The UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes96

11.3.3 The 2008 Draft Articles on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers98

11.4 Specific Instruments99

11.4.1 Africa99

11.4.2 America102

11.4.3 Asia105

11.4.4 Europe107

11.4.5 Middle East111

11.5 Conclusions112

12 Oceans and Marine Resources115

12.1 Survey115

12.2 The Legal Framework： UNCLOS118

12.3 Protection of the Marine Environment121

12.3.1 State of the Marine Environment121

12.3.2 All Types of Pollution122

12.3.3 Pollution from Ships126

12.3.4 Pollution by Dumping of Wastes128

12.3.5 Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Atmospheric Pollution129

12.3.6 Pollution from Sea-Bed Activities130

12.3.7 Intervention in Case of Marine Pollution Incidents132

12.4 Conservation and Management of Marine Living Resources133

12.4.1 State of the Marine Living Resources133

12.4.2 Fish134

12.4.3 Mammals138

12.5 Conclusions140

13 Air， Ozone， Climate and Outer Space145

13.1 Survey145

13.2 Transboundary Air Pollution149

13.2.1 LRTAP Convention and Related Protocols149

13.2.2 Canada-US Air Quality Agreement153

13.3 Ozone Layer Depletion154

13.3.1 Ozone Convention154

13.3.2 Montreal Protocol155

13.4 Global Climate Change159

13.4.1 Climate Change Convention159

13.4.2 Kyoto Protocol160

13.4.3 From Kyoto to Copenhagen： Building a Post-2012 Climate Protection Regime164

13.5 Outer Space Activities and Environmental Protection171

13.6 Conclusions173

14 Flora， Fauna and Biological Diversity177

14.1 Survey177

14.2 Flora and Fauna181

14.2.1 The Protection of Habitat181

14.2.2 Regulating Trade in Endangered Species： CITES184

14.2.3 Protecting Migratory Species188

14.2.4 Other Instruments190

14.3 Biological Diversity192

14.3.1 The Biodiversity Convention192

14.3.2 Access and Benefit-Sharing： Bonn Guidelines and Nagoya Protocol196

14.3.3 The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources198

14.3.4 Trading Genetic Material： The Biosafety Protocol200

14.4 Forests201

14.5 Soil205

14.6 Conclusions209

15 Wastes and Hazardous Substances211

15.1 Survey211

15.2 Control of Transboundary Movements of Wastes215

15.2.1 The Basel Convention215

15.2.2 The Bamako Convention218

15.3 International Regulation of Hazardous Substances219

15.3.1 The Rotterdam Convention219

15.3.2 The Stockholm Convention221

15.3.3 Conventions on Nuclear Materials222

15.4 Conclusions224

16 Procedural Environmental Obligations227

16.1 Basic Observations227

16.2 Information， Notification and Consultation in Interstate Relations227

16.2.1 Situations of Likely Transboundary Environmental Harm228

16.2.2 Situations of Transboundary Environmental Emergency228

16.3 Environmental Impact Assessment （EIA）230

16.4 Participatory Rights of Non-Governmental Actors234

16.4.1 ‘Public Participation’ in General234

16.4.2 The Aarhus Convention236

16.5 Conclusions239

Ⅳ International Environmental Governance Ⅰ：‘Setting the Rules of the Game’241

17 International Environmental Governance243

17.1 Theoretical Premises and Policy Framework243

17.2 Actors245

17.2.1 States247

17.2.2 International Organisations249

17.2.3 Treaty Bodies253

17.2.4 Private Actors255

17.3 Forms of Action256

17.3.1 Law-Making， Implementation and Ways to Ensure Compliance256

17.3.2 Treaty-Based Legislative Environmental Governance258

17.3.3 Treaty-Based Administrative Environmental Governance259

17.4 Multilevel Governance261

18 International Environmental Treaty-Making and Treaty Regime-Building265

18.1 Treaty Negotiation and Treaty Conclusion in General265

18.1.1 Procedural Aspects265

18.1.2 Substantive Aspects267

18.2 Levels of Treaty-Making268

18.3 Regulatory Approaches to Treaty-Making269

18.3.1 ‘Framework Convention and Protocol Approach’270

18.3.2 ‘Convention and Annexes Approach’272

18.4 Simplified Amendment Procedures Regarding Treaties， Protocols and Annexes273

18.4.1 Amendments of Treaties and Protocols273

18.4.2 Amendments and Adjustments of Annexes274

18.4.3 COPS’ Decision-Making Procedures275

18.5 Conflicts between Different MEAs and Their Settlement277

18.5.1 Parallel， Overlapping and Conflicting MEAs277

18.5.2 Article 30 VCLT； Lex Posterior and Lex Specialis； Harmonising Treaty Interpretation278

18.5.3 Treaty Co-ordination by Means of Interinstitutional Co-operation279

19 Customary International Environmental Law； Environmental Jus Cogens and Obligations Erga Omnes281

19.1 Customary International Law in General281

19.1.1 Meaning and Function of Customary International Law281

19.1.2 Formation of Customary International Law282

19.2 Customary International Environmental Law283

19.2.1 The Dynamics of Customary International Environmental Law283

19.2.2 Examples of Existing or Emerging Rules of Customary International Environmental Law285

19.3 Environmental Jus Cogens and Obligations Erga Omnes286

20 International Environmental ‘Soft Law’289

20.1 Theoretical Premises289

20.2 Legally Non-Binding Agreements between States291

20.3 Interinstitutional Non-Legal Arrangements294

20.4 Recommendations of International Organisations295

21 Private Environmental Governance299

21.1 Introduction299

21.2 Contribution of Private Actors to International Environmental Law-Making299

21.2.1 NGO Involvement in Environmental Treaty-Making300

21.2.2 Private Actor Contributions to the Development of Non-Treaty Norms301

21.3 Environmental Standard-Setting302

21.3.1 Distinguishing Environmental Standards from Environmental Law-Making302

21.3.2 Categorising Standards304

21.3.3 Ensuring Compliance with Private Standards306

21.3.4 Inherent Limitations of Private Standard-Setting307

21.4 International Environmental Partnerships308

21.4.1 The Emergence of Partnerships in International Environmental Law308

21.4.2 Partnerships in Practice310

21.4.3 Assessing the Contribution of Partnerships to International Environmental Governance313

Ⅴ International Environmental Governance Ⅱ： Ensuring Compliance315

22 Compliance Control317

22.1 Compliance Control and Assistance as ‘Active Treaty Management’317

22.2 The Legal Basis of Compliance-Control Procedures321

22.3 The Procedural Framework325

22.3.1 Trigger Mechanisms326

22.3.2 Verification328

22.3.3 Evaluation330

22.3.4 Measures in Response to Non-Compliance332

22.3.5 Procedural Principles and Safeguards333

22.4 Institutional Setting336

22.5 Conclusions339

23 Compliance Assistance343

23.1 The Concept of Compliance Assistance343

23.2 Typology345

23.2.1 Capacity-Building345

23.2.2 Transfer of Technology346

23.2.3 Financial Mechanisms348

23.3 Conditionality of Assistance349

23.4 Institutional Setting351

23.4.1 Tailor-Made Institutions351

23.4.2 The Global Environment Facility353

23.5 Conclusions357

24 Responsibility and Liability359

24.1 Introduction359

24.2 State Responsibility361

24.2.1 2001 ILC Draft Articles361

24.2.2 Case Law364

24.3 State Liability366

24.4 Civil Liability368

24.4.1 Oil Pollution and Other Hazardous Substances369

24.4.2 Nuclear Energy371

24.4.3 Wastes373

24.4.4 The 1993 Liability Convention373

24.5 Conclusions374

25 Environmental Dispute Settlement377

25.1 Survey377

25.2 Non-Judicial Dispute Settlement378

25.3 Judicial Dispute Settlement379

25.3.1 The ICJ and Other Permanent International Courts380

25.3.2 International Arbitration382

25.3.3 Quasi-Judicial Dispute Settlement383

25.4 Dispute Settlement and Compliance Control386

Ⅵ Relationship between International Environmental Law and Other Areas of International Law389

26 Environmental Protection and Human Rights391

26.1 Environmental Human Rights Protection in General391

26.2 Environmental Human Rights Protection in Practice393

26.2.1 United Nations393

26.2.2 Africa395

26.2.3 Americas396

26.2.4 Asia398

26.2.5 Europe399

26.3 Environmental Rights of Indigenous Peoples402

26.4 Rights of Environmental Migrants405

27 Environmental Protection and International Peace and Security411

27.1 Peace， Security and the Environment： A Multifaceted Relationship411

27.2 The Law of Armed Conflict412

27.2.1 Treaty Law Applicable to International Armed Conflicts413

27.2.2 Customary Law Applicable to International Armed Conflicts416

27.2.3 The Law Applicable to Non-International Armed Conflicts417

27.3 The Applicability of MEAs in Times of Armed Conflict417

27.4 Environmental Impact of Arms Control and Disarmament Obligations418

27.5 Conclusions419

28 Environmental Protection and International Economic Law423

28.1 Conflict or Complementarity？423

28.2 WTO Law424

28.2.1 The Development of WTO Law424

28.2.2 The GATT Treaty Framework426

28.2.3 Case Law Related to Article XX GATT427

28.2.4 The TBT and the SPS Agreements430

28.2.5 The WTO Committee on Trade and Environment432

28.2.6 The Relationship between WTO Agreements and MEAs433

28.3 Trade Issues beyond the WTO435

28.4 International Financial Institutions437

28.5 Conclusions437

Ⅶ Perspectives439

Current State of Global Environmental Co-operation439

Reasons for Deficient Environmental Co-operation440

North-South Dichotomy440

Current Challenges and Trends in Global Environmental Co-operation441

Ensuring More Effective Treaty Compliance443

Ways and Means to Enhance International Environmental Law444

Index447