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Chapter One Introduction1

Ⅰ.International institutional law1

A.A classic theme： interdependence and state sovereignty1

B.Objectives6

1.To describe and analyze international institutional law7

2.To contribute to improvements in practice12

3.To contribute to a better understanding of international institutional law13

a.Legal research into the law of international organizations13

b.Constitutionalism13

c.Global administrative law13

d.Political science and international organizations14

e.Virally and the concept of ‘function’15

C.Unity within diversity？22

D.Method26

Ⅱ.Definition29

A.International cooperation， international organizations，（con）federations29

B.A definition： three elements32

1.International agreement34

2.At least one organ with a will of its own44

3.Established under international law45

C.International organizations， international corporations， Non-Governmental Organizations46

Ⅲ.Classification48

A.Criteria for classification48

B.Universal versus closed organizations51

1.Universal organizations51

2.Closed organizations53

C.Intergovernmental versus supranational organizations58

1.Intergovernmental organizations58

2.Supranational organizations60

D.Special versus general organizations63

1.Special organizations63

2.General organizations64

Ⅳ.Conclusion65

Chapter Two Participants71

Ⅰ.Full members71

A.Subjects of membership71

1.States71

2.Territories which are not independent states75

3.Groups of states79

4.International organizations81

B.Commencement of membership85

1.Establishment of the organization85

2.Re-admission of ex-members87

3.Admission of new members88

a.Admission by constitutional amendment88

b.Conditions imposed by the constitution90

4.Acceptance of membership100

5.Date of commencement of membership102

6.Establishment of new states103

C.Termination of membership118

1.Withdrawal by the member119

a.Constitutional provisions120

b.Withdrawal without constitutional provision123

（i） Interpretative declarations123

（ii） Practical experience125

（iii） Legality134

c.Partial withdrawal136

2.Expulsion from the organization137

a.The notion ‘expulsion138

（i） Expulsion versus suspension139

（ii） Expulsion as a sanction140

（iii） Expulsion to protect the organization141

b.Constitutional provisions143

c.Expulsion without constitutional provision146

3.Disappearance of the member or loss of essential qualifications149

4.Dissolution of the organization154

D.Rights and obligations of full members155

1.Individual rights and obligations156

2.Collective rights and obligations162

Ⅱ.Associate members166

Ⅲ.Partial members169

Ⅳ.Affiliate members172

Ⅴ.Observers173

A.General173

B.Categories of observers179

1.Non-member states and entities180

2.National liberation movements182

3.Public international organizations185

4.Private organizations188

5.Individuals and private companies196

Ⅵ.Concluding observations198

Chapter Three Rules for International Organs206

Ⅰ.Powers206

A.Attribution of powers206

1.General206

2.Attribution of powers to the organization209

3.The concept of domestic jurisdiction211

4.Attribution of powers to organs of the organization217

B.Delegation of powers224

C.Sacrifice of powers231

D.Implied powers232

Ⅱ.Composition of organs237

A.Size237

B.Representation of members238

1.Representation by a delegation239

a.Denomination239

b.Instructions240

c.Size of delegations242

d.Composition of delegations243

（i） Governmental delegates243

（ii） Delegates representing specific interests250

（iii） Delegates from national parliaments251

（iv） Foreign delegates253

（v） Multinational delegations254

e.Obligation to send a delegation255

f.Credentials256

2.Representation by proxy264

C.Use of individual experts267

D.Use of civil servants275

E.Equitable representation of interests276

1.Equitable geographical representation276

a.Need for regional representation276

b.Composition of regions277

2.Equitable representation of specific interests280

3.Means of strengthening representation282

F.Election of non-plenary organs285

1.Election by the entire organization286

2.Election by the region or group concerned289

3.Election or rotation？295

4.Co-option296

5.Term of office297

6.Dates of replacement299

G.Quorum302

Ⅲ.Functioning306

A.Sessions306

1.Characteristics306

2.Frequency and duration309

3.Specialized sessions312

4.Costs313

5.Place317

6.Public and private meetings， publicity and transparancy321

7.Documentation322

8.Privileges and immunities at sessions323

a.Definition323

b.Why are privileges and immunities granted to international organizations？324

c.Instruments laying down privileges and immunities325

d.Subjects of privileges and immunities326

（i） Individual experts326

（ii） Delegates of members327

（iii） Delegates of non-members332

（iv） Delegates of other public international organizations333

（v） Delegates of private international organizations and individuals334

9.Procedure337

a.Agenda338

b.General debate340

c.Discussion of agenda items342

d.Statements of delegations343

e.Limits to freedom of speech346

f.Procedural motions349

B.Officers354

1.Chairman354

a.Appointment354

b.Powers and obligations361

2.Vice-presidents and bureau365

3.Rapporteurs366

C.Languages367

Ⅳ.Concluding observations376

Chapter Four Policy-Making and Administrative Organs384

Ⅰ.Classifying international organs384

Ⅱ.Policy-making organs389

A.Plenary policy-making organs390

1.General congress or council of ministers390

a.Denomination390

b.Task391

2.Junior congress393

3.Specialized congresses396

4.Plenary commissions400

a.Congressional commissions401

b.Plenary functional commissions404

B.Non-plenary policy-making organs406

1.The need for non-plenary policy-making organs406

2.The board409

a.Executive board410

（i） Task410

（ii） Composition412

b.Governing board415

（i） Task415

（ii） Composition418

3.Commissions and committees421

a.Functional commissions422

b.Consultative commissions of interest groups424

c.Ad hoc advisory commissions426

d.Procedural committees427

e.Regional commissions and regional groups428

4.President of the organization432

Ⅲ.Secretariat434

A.Description434

B.Tasks and influence of the secretariat439

1.Functions442

a.Administrative and clerical functions442

b.Budget443

c.Information444

d.Recording445

e.Collection of reports from member states446

f.Collection of information from member states447

g.Coordination448

h.Representation of the organization450

i.Assistance to members454

j.Observation of elections456

k.Depositary of treaties457

l.Executive functions459

m.Right of initiative461

n.Good offices， inquiry， mediation， conciliation， arbitration462

o.Performance of instructions464

2.Power and accountability465

3.Delegation of tasks； outside experts466

C.Seat469

1.Requirements469

2.Centralization478

3.Decentralization： regional offices489

D.International civil servants491

1.Appointment492

2.Number of international civil servants496

3.Qualifications498

4.Geographic distribution500

5.Conditions of employment506

a.Grades508

b.Remuneration511

c.Pension and social security515

d.Obligations516

e.Permanent or temporary employment518

f.Internships523

6.Independence524

a.Relation with the national governments525

b.Privileges529

（i） Exemption from taxation530

（ii） Other privileges533

c.Immunity from jurisdiction534

（i） Immunity for official acts534

（ii） Immunity for other acts535

（iii） Waiver of immunity536

7.The safety of personnel538

8.Legal position539

a.Law governing the service539

b.Legal protection542

Ⅳ.The European Commission547

A.Task547

B.Composition550

Ⅴ.Concluding observations551

Chapter Five Advisory and Supervisory Organs558

Ⅰ.Parliamentary organs558

A.Need for parliamentary organs558

B.International organizations with parliamentary organs564

C.Composition of parliamentary organs568

1.Size568

2.Election of members570

3.Parties574

D.Tasks of parliamentary organs576

1.Control over the executive576

2.Control over the budget582

3.Advisory functions584

a.Advising national parliaments585

b.Advising international organs587

c.Participation in decision-making and in legislation589

E.Functioning of parliamentary organs594

Ⅱ.Judicial organs597

A.The need for judicial organs597

1.Control of the legality of decisions599

2.Administrative jurisdiction over staff members602

3.Control of the application of acts within the national legal orders603

4.Private law604

B.Existing judicial organs605

1.Universal judicial organs605

a.The International Court of Justice605

b.Ad hoc tribunals on war crimes and the International Criminal Court608

c.The Human Rights Committee609

d.The Committee on Economic， Social and Cultural Rights610

e.The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination611

f.The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women612

g.The Committee against Torture613

h.The Committee on the Rights of the Child614

i.The Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families615

j.The Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities615

k.The Committee on Enforced Disappearances615

l.The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea616

2.Regional judicial organs617

a.The Court of Justice and the European Union618

b.Benelux Court of Justice622

c.The EFTA Court of Justice623

d.The Andean Court of Justice624

e.The European Court of Human Rights625

f.American organs for human rights629

g.African Commission on Human and People’s Rights， African Human Rights Court， and the African Court of Justice and Human Rights630

h.Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine631

i.Other river commissions632

j.European Tribunal on State Immunity633

k.Tribunal of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency634

l.Tribunal of WEU635

m.Tribunal of International Composition in the Saar636

n.Central American Court of Justice637

o.Judicial Commission of the OAPEC638

p.East African Court of Justice639

q.ECOWAS Community Court of Justice640

r.Court of Justice of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa641

s.Tribunal of the South African Development Community641

t.Caribbean Court of Justice641

u.MERCOSUR Permanent Review Tribunal641

3.Staff administrative tribunals642

a.The UN Dispute and Appeals Tribunals642

b.The ILO Administrative Tribunal （ILOAT）643

c.The World Bank Administrative Tribunal645

d.The Administrative Tribunal of the International Monetary Fund646

e.Regional administrative tribunals647

4.Arbitration， conciliation， mediation and fact-finding commissions648

5.Other bodies670

C.Composition of judicial organs672

1.Number of members672

2.Nationality of the members675

3.Qualifications679

4.Appointment680

5.Independence of judges683

6.Advocates-General684

7.Registrar’s office685

D.Procedure before judicial organs686

1.Access to the court687

a.Plaintiff688

b.Defendant692

2.Decision693

a.Judgment693

b.Other decisions694

3.Separate opinions695

Ⅲ.Concluding observations700

Chapter Six Decision-Making Process706

Ⅰ.The concept of a decision706

Ⅱ.Legal basis708

Ⅲ.Initiative710

A.Necessity for initiatives710

B.Initiatives by governments711

C.Initiatives by organs of the organization712

1.Secretariat712

2.Organs of independent experts715

D.Initiatives by other international organizations719

E.Initiatives by interest groups720

F.Initiatives by individuals721

Ⅳ.Drafting of the text725

A.Preparation of proposals725

1.Submission725

2.The draft727

3.Two examples729

a.Law-making in the UN730

b.Decision-making and legislation in the European Union739

B.Discussion of proposals747

1.Date of submission747

2.Sponsors750

3.Amendments752

4.Time-limits， marathon sessions753

5.Package deals756

6.Informal consultation， pressure760

7.Caucuses763

8.Negotiating groups766

9.Withdrawal of proposals and amendments768

10.Financial implications of resolutions769

11.Closure of discussions770

Ⅴ.Decision-making by consensus771

A.Introduction771

B.Some examples773

C.Explaining the decline of majority voting and the rise of consensus781

Ⅵ.Voting787

A.Unanimity787

1.Organizations requiring unanimity788

2.Exceptions to unanimity789

B.Voting power791

1.Equality of voting power791

2.Inequality of voting power794

a.Permanent seats and weighted representation795

b.Weighted voting795

（i） Desirability795

（ii） Some examples799

c.Veto813

C.Required majority817

1.Kinds of majorities817

2.Calculation of majorities820

a.Majority of membership821

b.Majority of the votes823

c.Abstention824

d.Non-participation in the vote （or in a consensus）830

e.Absence831

f.Invalid vote837

3.Unqualified majority838

a.Voting between two alternatives838

b.Voting between several alternatives842

c.Multiple elections849

4.Qualified majority851

a.Two-thirds majority851

b.Other qualified majorities855

5.Qualified minorities856

6.Factors influencing the majority to be preferred857

a.The need for a decision858

b.The effect of the decision861

c.Structure and procedures of the decision-making organ863

D.Methods of voting868

1.Simultaneous open voting869

2.Roll-call or recorded vote871

3.Secret vote873

4.Vote by correspondence876

5.Alteration of votes cast882

E.Conditional voting884

Ⅶ.Entry into force of decisions888

A.Immediate entry into force888

B.Previous agreement of other organs889

C.Previous agreement of member states892

Ⅷ.Termination of decisions897

A.Amendment and revocation898

1.Amendment898

2.Revocation905

3.Withdrawal907

B.Termination of membership908

C.Dissolution of the organization910

D.Political annulment911

E.Judicial annulment912

1.Possibility of annulment912

2.Initiative for judicial annulment914

3.Grounds of illegality915

Ⅸ.Concluding observations917

Chapter Seven Financing928

Ⅰ.Expenditure928

A.Total expenditure928

B.Classification of costs931

1.Methods of classification931

a.Budgeting according to instrument or to activity931

b.Administrative or operational expenditure938

2.Fields of activity： some examples942

a.General overview943

b.Development assistance； “economic and social cohesion”945

c.Peace operations951

3.Instruments955

a.Personnel956

b.Sessions of the organs of the organization957

c.Buildings960

d.Equipment963

e.General expenses964

Ⅱ.Income965

A.Contributions966

1.Contributors966

2.The sharing of expenditure967

a.Equal contributions967

b.Optional classes of contribution969

c.Scales of assessment974

（i） Capacity to pay976

（ii） Interest in the work of the organization and other factors980

（iii） Flexibility of scales986

3.Limits to contributions of members992

a.Minimum contribution992

b.Maximum contribution993

c.Maximum expenditure1001

d.Special rates1002

4.The organs involved1005

5.Currencies of contributions1006

6.Defaults in payment1010

a.Refusal to pay1010

b.Incentives to pay1014

c.Filling the gap： working capital funds1017

7.Table of contributions1021

B.Voluntary contributions1022

1.The principle of voluntary contributions1022

2.Existing systems of voluntary contributions1026

3.Trust funds1029

4.International organizations contributing to voluntary programmes1032

5.Voluntary contributions from non-members1033

6.Raising voluntary contributions1034

a.Pledging1034

b.Collection of voluntary contributions1037

C.Gifts1040

1.Gifts that benefit the budget of the organization1040

2.Gifts for specific programmes1043

3.Acceptance of gifts1049

D.Self-support1050

1.Income from services rendered to states1051

a.Retributions1051

b.Requested services1053

c.Cost sharing for specific projects1056

d.Special payment by the states responsible for the expense1057

2.Income from services rendered to individuals1058

3.Income from services rendered to other international organizations1062

4.Income from investments and borrowing1064

5.Income from staff assessment1070

6.“Book-keeping” income1073

E.Taxation1074

1.Definition of taxation1074

2.Conditions for international taxation1075

3.Existing systems of taxation1081

Ⅲ.Budget1091

A.Use of the budget1091

1.Purpose1091

2.One budget？1094

3.Structure1097

4.Explanatory memorandum1100

5.Budgetary periods1101

6.Medium-term financial plans / strategic frameworks1103

B.Preparation1105

1.Regular estimates1105

2.Revised estimates1108

C.Adoption and execution1109

1.The decision establishing the budget1109

2.Power of the organ adopting the budget1111

3.Execution and supplementary estimates1121

4.Budgetary surpluses1122

D.Audit1123

1.Internal audit1123

2.External audit1125

Ⅳ.Concluding observations1131

Chapter Eight Legal Order1139

Ⅰ.Introduction1139

Ⅱ.Constitution1145

A.Legal force1146

B.Characteristics1147

1.Creation of a legal person1148

2.Limitation on reservations1150

3.Withdrawal1154

4.Tacit renewal1155

C.Amendment of the constitution1157

1.Necessity for amendments1157

2.Constitutional requirements for amendments1163

a.Legal character of constitutional provisions on amendment1163

b.Existing constitutional requirements1165

（i） Temporary exclusion of amendments1166

（ii） Amendment requiring the cooperation of organs in addition to unanimity of the members1168

（iii） Amendment by unanimous approval of the members1169

（iv） Amendment by qualified majority of the members1173

（v） Amendment by decision1178

（vi） Amendments without general application1187

3.Amendment procedure1189

a.Competent organ1189

b.Right of initiative1190

c.Time limits1191

d.Provisional application1192

e.Amendments creating new obligations1193

f.Entry into force of amendments1194

4.Revision1195

Ⅲ.Decisions of the organization1196

A.Internal rules1196

1.Rules concerning the functioning of the organization1201

2.Internal rules with external effect1206

a.Possibility of external effect1206

b.Operational activities1208

c.Competence to engage in operational activities1210

B.External rules1216

1.Recommendations1217

a.The notion “recommendation”1217

b.Factors which strengthen recommendations1220

（i） Constitutional provisions1221

（ii） Structure of the organization1223

（iii） The method of enactment1224

（iv） Formal acceptance1231

（v） The need for a rule1233

（vi） The application by others1237

（vii） The moral or legitimizing effect1238

（viii） Restatement1240

c.Internal effects of recommendations1241

2.Declarations1244

a.The notion “declaration”1244

b.Legal effect1248

3.Conventions1262

a.The notion “convention”1262

（i） Denomination1262

（ii） Special forms of conventions1263

（iii） Characteristics1266

b.Competence to make conventions1271

c.Legal force before ratification1276

d.Ratification1281

（i） The requirement of ratification1281

（ii） Pressure to ratify1282

（iii） Negative acceptance （contracting out， tacit acceptance）1288

（iv） Provisional application1295

e.Legal effect after ratification1297

f.Possible parties to conventions1298

（i） Members1298

（ii） Non-members1300

（iii） Other international organizations1305

g.Final clauses1306

h.Amendment1311

4.Binding rules1318

a.Denomination1322

b.Types of binding decisions1323

（i） Decisions addressed to governments1323

（ii） Decisions addressed to individuals1330

（iii） General regulations1332

Ⅳ.Other elements of the legal order1335

A.International law1335

B.General principles of law1336

C.Customary law1339

Ⅴ.Concluding observations1340

Chapter Nine Interpretation and Settlement of Disputes1346

Ⅰ.Means of interpretation1346

A.The text； practice of the organization1347

B.The intention of the law-maker1348

C.The object and purpose of the rule concerned1349

D.Other issues relevant for the means of interpretation1350

Ⅱ.Authorities charged with interpretation1351

A.Interpretation by the members1351

1.National executives1351

2.National courts1352

B.Interpretation by organs of the organization1355

1.Policy-making organs1355

2.Judicial organs1363

a.Judgments1364

b.Advisory opinions1366

c.Preliminary rulings1374

Ⅲ.Competence to request interpretation1379

A.Organs of the organization1379

B.Members of the organization1380

C.Private persons1384

D.National courts1385

Ⅳ.Concluding observations1387

Chapter Ten Supervision and Sanctions1392

Ⅰ.Definitions1392

A.Internal supervision1392

B.External supervision1395

Ⅱ.Supervision of the implementation of rules1399

A.Supervision by other members acting on their own account1400

B.Supervision by or on behalf of the organization1402

1.Supervision based on reports of the members1402

2.Supervision based on information collected by the organization1406

3.Supervision based on inspection1414

a.Continuing supervision1415

b.Retrospective fact-finding1424

C.Supervision by individuals1428

1.Petitions1429

2.Court proceedings1435

3.National committees1436

4.Effect1437

Ⅲ.Official recognition of violations1439

Ⅳ.Waiver of obligations1444

Ⅴ.Sanctions1445

A.Sanctions by the other members1449

B.Sanctions （authorized） by the organization1450

1.The possibili of imposing sanctions1450

2.Suspension of voting rights1455

3.Suspension of representation1461

4.Suspension of services of the organization1463

5.Suspension of rights and privileges of membership1466

6.Expulsion from specific organs1470

7.Expulsion from the organization1475

8.Sanctions through other organizations1476

9.Economic sanctions1478

10.Forces of international organizations and military enforcement1487

11.Other sanctions1513

C.Enforcement within the national legal order1518

1.Enforcement through national parliaments1521

2.Enforcement through national courts1522

a.Should national courts apply rules of international law？1522

（i） Monist and dualist theories1522

（ii） Application of constitutional provisions1538

（iii） Application of international decisions1541

b.Initiative for decisions of national courts1545

D.Sanctions against individuals1549

Ⅵ.Concluding observations1553

Chapter Eleven Legal Status1562

Ⅰ.Status in international law1562

A.Personality of international organizations in international law1562

B.Application of international law1572

1.General principles of law1575

2.Treaty law1577

3.Customary law1579

4.Decisions of other international organizations1580

C.Responsibility and liability under international law1582

Ⅱ.Status in national law1591

A.Personality of international organizations in domestic law1591

1.Personality in the law of member states1591

a.Constitutional provisions1591

b.Provisions in national law1592

c.In the absence of express provisions1594

2.Personality in the law of non-member states1598

B.Application of domestic law1599

1.Competence to make use of national laws1599

2.The law to be applied1601

3.Limits imposed by privileges1606

4.Limits imposed by immunity om jurisdiction1610

5.Liability under private law1613

Ⅲ.Duration1617

A.Establishment1617

B.Dissolution of the organization1623

1.Termination or succession1623

2.Methods of dissolution1629

a.Constitutional provisions1629

b.Provisions in other treaties and implied succession1632

c.Acts of the general congress1637

d.Agreements with other international organizations1639

e.Disuse1640

f.Constitutional amendment1641

g.Changed circumstances1642

h.Denouncing membership1643

i.Conclusion1644

3.Consequences of dissolution1645

a.Functions of the organization1645

b.Legal acts of the organization1648

（i） Recommendations and declarations1650

（ii） Conventions1651

（iii） Internal rules1654

（iv） General regulations1656

（v） Binding Decisions1657

（vi） Agreements1661

（vii） Contracts1665

c.Personnel of the organization1666

d.Property of the organization1673

4.Conclusion1680

Ⅳ.Concluding observations1681

Chapter Twelve External Relations1687

Ⅰ.Partners for external relations1687

A.Relations with states1687

1.Non-members1687

2.Members1688

3.Host states1689

B.Relations with other international organizations1691

1.“Families” of international organizations1691

a.The “UN family”1692

b.The European Union1698

c.Inter-American organizations1699

d.Other families1701

2.Coordination1702

a.The need for coordination1702

b.Forms of coordination1705

c.Coordination at the international level： by whom？1706

d.Coordination at the international level： how？1713

（i） Priority for the acts of one organization1713

（ii） Delimitation of competences1718

（iii） Common organs1721

（iv） Joint sessions and meetings； joint programmes1727

（v） Consultations1728

（vi） Exchange of observers1729

（vii） Reporting1730

（viii） Planning1732

（ix） Exchanges1733

（x） Training1738

e.Coordination at national level1739

Ⅱ.Instruments of external relations1742

A.Agreements1743

1.The notion “agreement”1744

2.Competence to conclude agreements1748

a.The treaty-making capacity of international organizations1748

b.Mixed agreements1756

c.The competent organ1763

3.The subject matter of agreements1769

a.Agreements on the status of the organization and on relations with others1770

b.Agreements on assistance to members1771

c.Agreements concerning the organization’s field of operation1772

d.Law-making agreements1773

e.Establishment of new international organizations1776

4.The legal force of agreements1783

a.Legal character1783

b.Validity1784

c.Binding force1787

5.The conclusion， entry into force and termination of agreements1789

a.Negotiation and signature1789

b.Ratification1791

c.Entry into force1794

d.Reservations1795

e.Registration1796

f.Termination1799

B.Diplomatic relations1801

1.The notion “diplomatic relations”1801

2.Passive legation1803

3.Active legation1816

a.The right of active legation1816

b.Permanent missions to members1820

（i） Missions for development1820

（ii） Missions for other purposes1829

（iii） National committees1831

c.Special missions to members1832

d.Missions to non-members1834

e.Missions to other international organizations1840

f.Delegations to international conferences1841

C.Recognition of other subjects of international law1843

1.Recognition of states1845

2.Recognition of governments1851

3.Recognition of territorial sovereignty1852

4.The competent organ1853

5.“Passive” recognition1855

D.Judicial actions and responsibility under public law1856

1.Competence to bring and receive international claims1856

2.The possibility to bring international claims to court1859

E.Convening international conferences1860

F.Issuing passports1863

G.Depositary of treaties1867

H.Registration of treaties1868

I.Registration of ships and aircraft1870

J.Flag， seal and emblem1872

Ⅲ.Concluding observations1875

Concluding Remarks1884

Ⅰ.Introduction1884

Ⅱ.The relationship between an international organization and its members1885

Ⅲ.Diversity of the rules of international institutional law1882

Ⅳ.Unity of the rules of international institutional law1896

Ⅴ.Towards more centralized international law？1900

Index1225