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Chapter 1 Introduction1

1.1 What Is Property?2

1.1.1 Relations Among People Regarding Valued Resources2

1.1.2 Ownership v. Bundles of Rights2

1.1.3 Individual Entitlement v. Property as a System3

1.1.4 Regulation v. Construction of a Property System4

1.1.5 Legal Relations5

1.2 Core Tensions Within Property Law6

1.2.1 Right to Exclude v. Right of Access6

1.2.2 Privilege to Use v. Security from Harm7

1.2.3 Power to Transfer v. Limits on Disaggregation7

1.2.4 Immunity from Loss v. Power to Acquire8

1.3.1 Rule Choices, Hard Cases, and Competing Arguments9

1.3 Recurring Themes9

1.3.2 Social Context10

1.3.3 Formal v. Informal Sources of Rights10

1.3.4 The Alienability Dilemma11

1.3.5 Contractual Freedom and Minimum Standards11

1.3.6 Systemic Norms12

1.4 Theories of Property13

1.4.1 Normative Approaches13

1.4.1.1 Justice, Liberty, or Rights-Based Approaches13

1.4.1.2 Utilitarian or Consequentialist Approaches14

1.4.1.3 Social Relations Approaches15

1.4.2 Justificatory Norms16

1.4.2.1 Possession16

1.4.2.2 Labor (Desert)17

1.4.2.3 Personality and Human Flourishing18

1.4.2.4 Efficiency18

1.4.2.5 Justified Expectations19

1.4.2.6 Distributive Justice19

PART Ⅰ THE RIGHT TO EXCLUDE AND THE RIGHT OF ACCESS21

Chapter 2 Trespass and Public Accommodations Law23

2.1 Introduction24

2.2 Excluding or Admitting People27

2.2.1 Private Property (Closed to the Public)27

2.2.2 Shared Use or Possession29

2.2.3 Public Accommodations (Open to the Public)30

2.3 Common Law Limits on the Right to Exclude34

2.3.1 Consent34

2.3.2 Estoppel37

2.3.3 Necessity38

2.3.4 Public Policy or Social Need39

2.3.5 Prescription40

2.4 Objects40

2.4.1 Encroaching Structures40

2.4.2 Vegetation and Trees42

2.4.3 Aviation42

2.4.4 Pollution43

2.5 Animals44

2.6 Public Accommodations Laws45

2.6.1 Title Ⅱ of the Civil Rights Act of 196445

2.6.2 Civil Rights Act of 186655

2.6.3 Americans with Disabilities Act of 199063

2.6.4 State Laws72

2.7.1 United States Constitution73

2.7 Free Speech Rights of Access to Private Property73

2.7.2 State Constitutions78

2.7.3 Labor Laws81

2.8 Public Trust Doctrine82

PART Ⅱ RELATIONSHIPS AMONG NEIGHBORS89

Chapter 3 Nuisance91

3.1 Introduction92

3.2 Private Nuisance98

3.2.1 Test98

3.2.2 Remedies105

3.2.3 Types of Nuisances113

3.3 Public Nuisance115

3.4.1 Diffuse Surface Water (Flooding)121

3.4 Water Rights121

3.4.2 Streams and Lakes125

3.4.3 Groundwater126

3.5 Support Rights128

3.5.1 Lateral Support128

3.5.2 Subjacent Support130

3.6 Light and Air131

Chapter 4 Adverse Possession133

4.1 Introduction134

4.2 Elements137

4.2.1 Actual Possession137

4.2.2 Open and Notorious140

4.2.4 Continuous141

4.2.3 Exclusive141

4.2.5 Adverse or Hostile142

4.2.6 For the Statutory Period148

4.2.7 Under Color of Title148

4.3 Justifications for Adverse Possession149

4.4 Typical Cases155

4.4.1 Color of Title155

4.4.2 Border Disputes156

4.4.3 Squatters157

4.4.4 Cotenants158

4.5 Procedures and Effects of Adverse Possession159

4.5.1 Level of Proof Required159

4.5.2 Effect on Prior Encumbrances159

4.6 Claims Against the Government161

4.7 Informal Transfers of Tifie to Setfie Boundary Disputes162

4.7.1 Improving Trespasser162

4.7.2 Dedication162

4.7.3 Oral Agreement163

4.7.4 Acquiescence163

4.7.5 Estoppel164

4.8 Adverse Possession of Personal Property164

Chapter 5 Licenses and Easements169

5.1 Introduction170

5.2 Licenses174

5.3 Implied Easements176

5.3.1 Easement by Estoppel177

5.3.2 Constructive Trust181

5.3.3 Implied From Prior Use184

5.3.4 Necessity187

5.4 Prescriptive Easements190

5.5 Express Easements199

5.5.1 Formal Requirements to Create199

5.5.2 Substantive Limitations200

5.5.3 Running with the Land (Appurtenant v. In Gross)203

5.5.4 Scope, Location, and Extension of Appurtenant Easements206

5.5.5 Scope and Apportionment of Easements in Gross212

5.6 Terminating Easements214

Chapter 6 Covenants217

6.1 Introduction218

6.2 Formal Requirements226

6.2.1 Writing229

6.2.2 Notice231

6.2.3 Intent to Run234

6.2.4 Privity of Estate236

6.3 Substantive Requirements245

6.3.1 Touch and Concern245

6.3.2 Enforcement in Gross250

6.4 Implied Reciprocal Negative Servitudes253

6.5 Remedies258

6.6 Interpretation of Ambiguous Covenants262

6.7 Public Policy Limitations268

6.7.1 Racial Restrictions268

6.7.2 Unreasonable Restraints on Alienation271

6.7.3 Unreasonable Restraints on Competition276

6.7.4 Public Policy277

6.8.1 Changed Conditions279

6.8 Modifying or Terminating Covenants279

6.8.2 Relative Hardship283

6.8.3 Conduct of the Parties284

6.8.4 Statutory Regulation286

PART Ⅲ COMMON OWNERSHIP287

Chapter 7 Present Estates and Future Interests289

7.1 Introduction290

7.2 Fee Simple293

7.3 Defeasible Fees294

7.3.1 Fee Simple Determinable/Possibility of Reverter295

7.3.2 Fee Simple Subject to Condition Subsequent/Right of Entry296

7.3.3 Fee Simple Subject to Executory Limitation/Executory Interest297

7.4.1 Remainders and Reversions298

7.4 Life Estates298

7.4.2 Contingent and Vested Remainders299

7.4.3 Destructibility of Contingent Remainders300

7.4.4 Doctrine of Worthier Title301

7.4.5 Rule in Shelley s Case302

7.5 Trusts302

7.6 Interpretation of Ambiguous Conveyances303

7.6.1 Presumption Against Forfeitures303

7.6.2 Waste308

7.6.3 Cy pres309

7.6.4 Changed Conditions310

7.7 Regulatory Rules312

7.7.1 Abolition of Fee Tail312

7.7.2 Restrictions on New Estates315

7.7.3 Unreasonable Restriants on Alienation316

7.7.4 Rule Against Perpetuities317

7.7.5 Racial Restrictions327

7.7.6 Restraints on Marriage329

7.7.7 Public Policy332

7.7.8 Judicial Sale of Property Subject to Future Interests332

Chapter 8 Concurrent Ownership333

8.1 Introduction334

8.2 Ownership in Common335

8.2.1 Tenancy in Common335

8.2.2 Joint Tenancy336

8.2.3 Tenancy by the Entirety343

8.3 Interpretation of Ambiguities345

8.4 Rights and Obligations of Cotenants346

8.4.1 Partition346

8.4.2 Joint Management348

8.4.3 Contribution for Repairs and Maintenance348

8.4.4 Rental Benefits and Obligations350

8.4.5 Leasing353

8.4.6 Adverse Possession354

8.5 Common Interest Communities355

8.5.1 Condominiums355

8.5.2 Cooperatives364

8.5.3 Affordable Housing Arrangements365

8.6 Business Property365

8.6.1 Partnerships366

8.6.2 Corporations368

8.6.3 Franchises370

8.7 Nonprofit Organizations371

8.8 Governmental Ownership372

Chapter 9 Family Property373

9.1 Introduction374

9.2 Historical Background376

9.2.1 Dower and Curtesy376

9.2.2 Married Women s Property Acts378

9.3 Marital Property379

9.3.1 Separate Property380

9.3.2 Community Property385

9.3.3 Tenancy by the Entirety390

9.4.1 Male-Female Couples391

9.4 Unmarried Couples391

9.4.2 Same-Sex Couples394

9.5 Parents and Children399

9.6 Inheritance401

9.6.1 Wills and Will Substitutes401

9.6.2 Intestate Succession402

PART Ⅳ REGULATION OF THE MARKET FOR SHELTER407

Chapter 10 Leaseholds409

10.1 Introduction410

10.2 Distinguishing Leaseholds from Other Interests416

10.3 Types of Tenancies (Leasehold Estates)423

10.3.1 Term of Years424

10.3.2 Periodic Tenancy425

10.3.3 Tenancy at Will429

10.3.4 Tenancy at Sufferance430

10.4.1 Tenant s Duty to Pay Rent431

10.4 Tenant s Obligations and Landlord s Remedies431

10.4.2 Tenant s Duty to Operate433

10.4.3 Illegality435

10.4.4 Landlord s Remedies435

10.4.4.1 Forfeiture (Landlord s Recovery of Possession)436

10.4.4.2 Holding the Tenant to a New Tenancy437

10.4.4.3 Self-help v. Summary Process438

10.4.4.4 Surrender, Reletting, Damages, and the Duty to Mitigate Damages441

10.5 Landlord s Obligations and Tenant s Remedies446

10.5.1 Landlord s Duty to Deliver Possession446

10.5.2 Security Deposits446

10.5.4 Antieviction Laws447

10.5.3 Actual Eviction447

10.5.5 Rent Control448

10.6 Tenant s Right to Habitable Premises449

10.6.1 Constructive Eviction449

10.6.2 Housing Codes452

10.6.3 Implied Warranty of Habitability452

10.6.4 Retaliatory Eviction460

10.6.5 Landlord s Tort Liability463

10.6.6 Consumer Protection Laws466

10.6.7 Lead Paint Laws467

10.7 Transfers by Landlord or Tenant468

10.7.1 Landlord s Right to Transfer the Reversion468

10.7.2 Tenant s Rights to Assign or Sublet468

Chapter 11 Real Estate Transactions471

11.1 Introduction472

11.2 Brokers474

11.3 Sales Contract (Purchase and Sale Agreement)480

11.3.1 The Attorney s Role481

11.3.2 Statute of Frauds482

11.3.3 What Constitutes Breach485

11.3.3.1 Fraud485

11.3.3.2 Warranty of Habitability for New Homes490

11.3.3.3 Marketable Title490

11.3.3.4 Good Faith Effort to Obtain Financing497

11.3.4 Remedies for Breach497

11.3.4.1 Buyer s Remedies497

11.3.4.2 Seller s Remedies500

11.3.5 Risk of Loss During Executory Period502

11.3.6 Death of a Contracting Party503

11.3.7 Mistake504

11.4 Deeds and Title Protection504

11.4.1 Formal Requirements504

11.4.1.1 Writing504

11.4.1.2 Delivery506

11.4.2 Substantive Requirements509

11.4.2.1 Forgery509

11.4.2.2 Fraud509

11.4.3 Title Covenants510

11.4.4 Marketable Title Acts512

11.4.5 Recording Acts514

11.4.5.1 How the System Works514

11.4.5.2 Types of Recording Acts516

11.4.5.3 Chain of Title Problems520

11.4.6 Title Insurance528

11.4.7 Title Registration529

11.5 Real Estate Finance530

11.5.1 Mortgages530

11.5.2 Installment Land Contracts538

11.5.3 Equitable Mortgages540

Chapter 12 Fair Housing Law543

12.1 Introduction544

12.2 Intentional Racial or National Origin Discrimination546

12.2.1 U.S. Constitution546

12.2.2.1 Prohibited Bases of Discrimination549

12.2.2.2 Covered Dwellings549

12.2.2 Fair Housing Act of 1968549

12.2.2.3 Exemptions551

12.2.2.4 Prohibited Conduct553

12.2.2.5 Standards of Proof555

12.2.2.6 Standing560

12.2.2.7 Advertising561

12.2.2.8 Remedies561

12.2.3 Civil Rights Act of 1866562

12.3 Sex Discrimination564

12.4 Disability Discrimination567

12.5 Familial Status Discrimination570

12.5.1 Families with Children570

12.5.2 Marital Status571

12.7 Sexual Orientation Discrimination573

12.6 Religious Discrimination573

12.8 Disparate Impact Claims574

12.8.1 Race574

12.8.2 Sex579

12.8.3 Disability580

12.8.4 Familial Status582

12.8.4.1 Families with Children582

12.8.4.2 Group Homes and Nontraditional Families583

12.8.5 Religion585

12.8.6 National Origin586

12.9 Economic Discrimination587

12.9.1 Intentional Wealth-based Discrimination587

12.9.2 Exclusionary Zoning588

12.9.3 The Right to Be Somewhere: Homelessness and Loitering Laws591

PART Ⅴ PUBLIC LAND USE PLANNING593

Chapter 13 Land Use Regulation595

13.1 Introduction596

13.2 Planning Process597

13.2.1 Federal, State, and Local Regulation597

13.2.2 Zoning Enabling Acts597

13.2.3 Comprehensive Plan598

13.2.4 Zoning Ordinance599

13.2.5 Board of Adjustment or Board of Zoning Appeals600

13.3 Zoning Laws600

13.3.1 Lot and Building Regulations600

13.3.2 Use Regulation601

13.3.3 Special Exceptions601

13.3.4 Contract or Conditional Zoning603

13.3.5 Floating Zones606

13.3.6 Overlay Zones607

13.4 Protection of Pre-Existing Property Rights607

13.4.1 Prior Nonconforming Uses607

13.4.2 Variances609

13.4.3 Vested Rights611

13.5 Rezoning: Limits on Preferential Zoning612

13.5.1 Conformity with Comprehensive Plan612

13.5.2 Spot Zoning613

13.6 Nonzoning Land Use Controls613

13.6.1 Building and Housing Codes613

13.6.2 Subdivision Regulations614

13.6.2.1 Subdivision Approval614

13.6.3 Growth Management and Regional Planning615

13.6.2.2 Planned Unit Developments615

13.6.4 Historic Landmarks617

13.6.5 Environmental Protection617

13.6.5.1 Wetlands Regulations618

13.6.5.2 Endangered Species Laws618

13.6.5.3 Hazardous Waste Laws619

13.6.6 Telecommunications Towers620

13.7 Constitutional Limits on Land Use Regulations621

13.7.1 First Amendment621

13.7.1.1 SLAPP Suits621

13.7.1.2 Free Speech622

13.7.1.3 Religious Uses624

13.7.2 Procedural Due Process626

13.7.3.1 Protection from Arbitrary Regulations627

13.7.3 Substantive Due Process627

13.7.3.2 Privacy (Family Integrity)628

13.7.4 Equal Protection629

Chapter 14 Regulatory Takings631

14.1 Introduction632

14.2 Historical Background634

14.2.1 Before 1922634

14.2.2 1922 to 1978636

14.2.3 After 1978643

14.3 Categorical Takings648

14.3.1 Core Property Rights649

14.3.1.1 Physical Invasions649

14.3.1.2 Right to Pass on Property at Death657

14.3.1.3 Other Core Rights?660

14.3.2 Deprivation of all Economically Viable Use661

14.3.3 Vested Rights671

14.4 General Balancing Test673

14.4.1 Character of Government Action674

14.4.2 Economic Impact (Diminution in Value)678

14.4.3 Interference with Reasonable Investment-backed Expectations680

14.4.4 Fairness and Justice681

14.5 Judicial Takings683

14.6 Exactions686

14.7 Takings Legislation689

14.8 Public Use Requirement692

14.8.1 U.S. Constitution692

14.9.1 Just Compensation695

14.8.2 State Constitutions695

14.9 Remedies for Regulatory Takings695

14.9.2 Procedures698

14.10 Tribal Property700

PART Ⅵ　TRIBAL PROPERTY701

Chapter 15 American Indian Property703

15.1 Introduction704

15.2 Tribal Title707

15.2.1 Original Indian Title (Aboriginal Title)707

15.2.2 Recognized Title711

15.2.3 Executive Order Title711

15.3 Individual Title712

15.3.1 Restricted Trust Allotments712

15.4.1 Original Indian Title714

15.3.2 Assignments714

15.4 Compensability714

15.4.2 Recognized Title717

15.4.3 Executive Order Title722

15.4.4 Restricted Trust Allotments724

15.5 Protection of Tribal Possession725

15.5.1 Restraint on Alienation725

15.5.2 Extinguishment725

15.6 Reparations727

15.6.1 Indian Claims Commission Act727

15.6.2 Eastern Land Claims729

15.6.3 Land Claims Settlement Acts732

15.6.4 Breach of Trust Claims733

15.6.5 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act736

15.7 Tribal Easements737

15.7.1 Hunting and Fishing Rights737

15.7.2 Water Rights738

PART Ⅶ　PERSONAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY739

Chapter 16 Personal and Intellectual Property741

16.1 Introduction742

16.2 Personal Property743

16.2.1 Wild Animals743

16.2.2 Finders747

16.2.3 Gifts751

16.2.4 Bailments753

16.2.5 Good Faith Purchasers754

16.3 Intellectual Property755

16.2.7 Accession and Fixtures755

16.2.6 Adverse Possession755

16.3.1 Copyright756

16.3.2 Patents759

16.3.3 Trademarks761

16.3.4 Unfair Competition764

16.3.5 Publicity Rights766

16.3.6 Moral Rights of Artists769

16.3.7 Cultural Property770

16.4 Human Bodies772

Table of Cases779

Tables of Statutes815

Table of Restatements831

Index833