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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION1

1.1 Reasons for Studying Foreign Language Teaching Methodology1

1.2 The Nature of Foreign Language Teaching Meth-odology2

1.3 Disciplines Contributing to Foreign Language Tea-ching(FLT)5

1.4 Factors Influencing Foreign Language Teaching and Learning8

1.5 Summary11

1.6 Questions and Tasks13

CHAPTER 2 ASPECTS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TE-ACHING14

2.1 Views of Language and Foreign Language Teach-ing14

2.1.1 The Structural View15

2.1.2 The Functional View17

2.2 Foreign Language Teaching Syllabus18

2.2.1 Types of Syllabus19

2.2.2 Syllabus Design22

2.2.3 Changes in Foreign Language Teaching and the Implications24

2.3 Principles of Foreign Language Teaching27

2.3.1 Learning and Teaching27

2.3.2 Cognitive,Affective and Linguistic Principles27

2.4 Aims and Objectives of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning29

2.4.1 Aims30

2.4.2 Objectives30

2.4.3 Guidelines31

2.5 Summary32

2.6 Questions and Tasks33

CHAPTER 3 ASPECTS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING35

3.1 Behaviorism versus Mentalism35

3.1.1 Behaviorism35

3.1.2 Mentalism37

3.2 The Monitor Model of Second Language Develop-ment40

3.2.1 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis40

3.2.2 The Monitor Hypothesis41

3.2.3 The Natural Order Hypothesis41

3.2.4 The Input Hypothesis42

3.2.5 The Affective Filter Hypothesis43

3.3 From Theory to Practice44

3.3.1 The Gap between Theory and Practice44

3.3.2 An Integrated Model of Second Language Teach-ing44

3.4 Language Learning Strategies45

3.4.1 Cognitive Styles45

3.4.2 Learning Strategies47

3.4.3 Learner Strategies49

3.5 Factors Contributing to Foreign Language Learn-ing51

3.5.1 Key Learner Variables51

3.5.2 Transfer,Interference and Overgeneralization56

3.6 Summary57

3.7 Questions and Tasks58

CHAPTER 4 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF PRONUNCIATION59

4.1 Components of Linguistic Competence59

4.2 General Knowledge of the Sound System60

4.3 Principles of Teaching and Learning Pronunciation67

4.4 Techniques for Teaching Pronunciation68

4.4.1 Order of Presentation68

4.4.2 Teaching Pronunciation in Context69

4.5 Basic Issues in Pronunciation Teaching75

4.6 Summary76

4.7 Questions and Tasks78

CHAPTER 5 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF VOCABULARY79

5.1 General Knowledge of Vocabulary79

5.1.1 Words and Their Meanings80

5.1.2 Words and Their Forms81

5.1.3 Words and Their Use82

5.2 Principles of Teaching and Learning Vocabulary87

5.2.1 Selecting Voeabulary87

5.2.2 Presenting New Vocabulary88

5.3 Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary89

5.3.1 Traditional and Student-Centered Approaches89

5.3.2 Incidental Vocabulary Learning95

5.4 Basic Issues in Teaching Vocabulary96

5.5 Summary98

5.6 Questions and Tasks99

CHAPTER 6 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF GRAMMAR101

6.1 General Knowledge of Grammar101

6.2 Principles of Teaching and Learning Grammar102

6.2.1 Teaching Grammar as Product103

6.2.2 Teaching Grammar as Process105

6.2.3 Teaching Grammar as Skill106

6.3 Techniques for Teaching Grammar108

6.3.1 Presenting Form,Meaning and Use110

6.3.2 Practice112

6.3.3 Integrating Structural and Lexical Content115

6.4 Basic Issues in Teaching Grammar116

6.5 Summary117

6.6 Questions and Tasks118

CHAPTER 7 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF DISCOURSE121

7.1 General Knowledge of Discourse121

7.1.1 Types of Spoken Discourse123

7.1.2 Patterns in Written Discourse126

7.2 Approaches to the Development of Discourse Skills128

7.2.1 Bottom-Up versus Top-Down128

7.2.2 Transaction versus Interaction129

7.3 Principles of Teaching and Learning Discourse130

7.4 Techniques for Teaching Discourse130

7.4.1 Approaches to Conversation Development130

7.4.2 Focusing on Cohesion132

7.4.3 Focusing on Coherence134

7.5 Summary135

7.6 Questions and Tasks136

CHAPTER 8 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF LISTENING139

8.1 Communicative Competence139

8.2 The Nature of Listening Comprehension140

8.2.1 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Models142

8.2.2 Interpersonal and Transactional Functions of Language143

8.2.3 Features of Spoken English145

8.3 Native Speaker Listening and Listening to a Foreign Language147

8.3.1 Native Speaker Listening Comprehension147

8.3.2 Listening to a Foreign Language149

8.4 Principles of Teaching and Learning Listening150

8.4.1 Instructional Objectives151

8.4.2 Listening Materials153

8.5 Techniques for Teaching Listening155

8.5.1 Listening Performance155

8.5.2 Listening Activities157

8.6 Points to Consider in Teaching Listening160

8.6.1 Teacher's Role160

8.6.2 Successful and Less Successful Listeners161

8.7 Summary162

8.8 Questions and Tasks163

CHAPTER 9 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF READING165

9.1 The Nature of Reading Comprehension165

9.1.1 Three Reading Models165

9.1.2 Insights from Studies of Related Fields166

9.2 Factors and Their Implications for Reading in an L2168

9.2.1 Factors Influencing Reading in an L2168

9.2.2 Implications for the Teaching and Learning of Reading170

9.3 Principles of Teaching and Learning Reading171

9.3.1 Goals and Objectives171

9.3.2 Reading Strategies173

9.3.3 Reading Materials175

9.3.4 An Organizational Framework178

9.4 Techniques for Teaching Reading180

9.4.1 Pre-Reading Strategies180

9.4.2 Presenting the Text181

9.4.3 Reading the Text182

9.4.4 Post-Reading Strategies184

9.5 Points to Consider in Teaching Reading185

9.5.1 Vocabulary in Reading185

9.5.2 Using Literature to Solve Cultural Problems186

9.5.3 Forming Good Reading Habits186

9.6 Summary187

9.7 Questions and Tasks188

CHAPTER 10 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF SPEAKING190

10.1 The Nature of Oral Interaction190

10.1.1 Real-Life Communication190

10.1.2 Structural Practice and Real-Life Communi-cation192

10.2 Two Major Approaches to the Teaching of Speak-ing195

10.2.1 The Indirect Approach195

10.2.2 The Direct Approach196

10.3 Principles of Teaching and Learning Speaking197

10.3.1 Goals and Objectives198

10.3.2 An Organizational Framework198

10.4 Techniques for Teaching Speaking199

10.4.1 Structural Practice200

10.4.2 The Use of Dialogues201

10.4.3 Activities According to Categories of Language Use205

10.4.4 Simulated Communicative Activities206

10.5 Points to Consider in Teaching Speaking213

10.5.1 The Role of the Oral Teacher213

10.5.2 Tips for Pair/Group Work213

10.6 Summary214

10.7 Questions and Tasks214

CHAPTER 11 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF WRITING216

11.1 The Nature of Writing216

11.1.1 Differences between Writing and Speaking216

11.1.2 Styles of Writing217

11.1.3 L2 Learners' Difficulties in Writing218

11.2 Approaches to Writing220

11.2.1 The Product Approach versus the Process Approach220

11.2.2 The Genre Approach221

11.3 Principles of Teaching and Learning Writing221

11.3.1 Goals and Objectives221

11.3.2 An Organizational Framework224

11.4 Techniques for Teaching Writing226

11.4.1 Writing Cohesive and Coherent Discourse226

11.4.2 Pre-Writing Techniques229

11.4.3 Composing and Drafting231

11.4.4 Rewriting and Editing232

11.4.5 Controlled Composition versus Free Composition233

11.5 Points to Consider in Teaching Writing235

11.5.1 Responding to Students' Writing235

11.5.2 Writing Assignment237

11.6 Summary239

11.7 Questions and Tasks239

CHAPTER 12 CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION AND MANAGEMENT241

12.1 Communication in the Classroom241

12.1.1 Characteristics of Classroom Communication241

12.1.2 Factors Related to Classroom Communication242

12.2 Dimensions of Classroom Management245

12.2.1 Large Classes247

12.2.2 Creating a Positive Classroom Climate249

12.2.3 Teaching Effective Language Learning Strat-egies250

12.3 Effective Classroom Instruction253

12.3.1 Making an Interactive Classroom Interactive253

12.3.2 Teachers' Questions254

12.3.3 Keeping Students on Task257

12.4 Cooperative Learning258

12.4.1 Features of Cooperative Learning258

12.4.2 Implementing Cooperative Learning259

12.4.3 Cooperative Activities261

12.5 Summary264

12.6 Questions and Tasks265

CHAPTER 13 USING TECHNOLOGY FOR LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION267

13.1 Defining Educational Technology267

13.2 Principles of Using Media in the Classroom268

13.2.1 A Rationale268

13.2.2 Guidelines269

13.3 Classroom Media:An Overview270

13.3.1 Non-Technical Media270

13.3.2 Technical Media270

13.4 Traditional Ways of Using Technology for Lan-guage Instruction272

13.4.1 Using the Overhead Projector to Provide Visual Support272

13.4.2 Using Language Labs to Strengthen Listening Comprehension Skills273

13.4.3 Using Video to Combine Visual and Auditory Learning274

13.4.4 Integrating Video into Language Instruction276

13.5 Using CALL to Enhance Language Learning279

13.5.1 Criteria for Communicative CALL279

13.5.2 Some Programs Used in CALL280

13.6 Other Uses of Computers282

13.6.1 Drills282

13.6.2 Adaptive Testing282

13.6.3 Corpora and Concordancing283

13.6.4 Computer-Mediated Communication(CMC)284

13.6.5 Creating and Evaluating Computer-Based Ac-tivities287

13.7 Summary289

13.8 Questions and Tasks290

CHAPTER 14 ASSESSING AND EVALUATING TEACH-ING AND LEARNING291

14.1 Basic Knowledge of Assessment291

14.1.1 Assessment,Examination and Test291

14.1.2 Kinds of Tests According to Purposes293

14.1.3 Kinds of Tests According to Methods297

14.2 Principles of Test Design302

14.2.1 Criteria of a Good Test302

14.2.2 Connecting Testing with Teaching304

14.2.3 Designing Different Tests306

14.3 Alternative Assessment309

14.3.1 Characteristics of Alternative Assessment309

14.3.2 Purposes and Uses of Alternative Assessment311

14.3.3 Types of Alternative Assessment313

14.3.4 Procedures for Setting up Alternative Assess-ment315

14.4 Summary316

14.5 Questions and Tasks316

CHAPTER 15 ERROR ANALYSIS AND REMEDIAL WORK318

15.1 Purposes in Error Analysis318

15.2 Theories of Error Analysis319

15.2.1 Contrastive Analysis319

15.2.2 Language Transfer320

15.2.3 Non-Contrastive Analysis320

15.2.4 Interlanguage321

15.2.5 Error Analysis321

15.3 Prerequisites for Error Analysis322

15.3.1 Mistakes and Errors322

15.3.2 Causes of Learner Errors323

15.4 Procedures of Error Analysis325

15.4.1 Identifying Errors325

15.4.2 Recognition326

15.4.3 Describing Errors327

15.4.4 Reconstruction327

15.5 Error Correction328

15.5.1 What to Correct329

15.5.2 When to Correct331

15.5.3 How to Correct332

15.5.4 Remedial Work333

15.6 Summary335

15.7 Questions and Tasks336

CHAPTER 16 A SURVEY OF FLT APPROACHES338

16.1 The Traditional Method School338

16.1.1 The Grammar-Translation Method338

16.1.2 The Direct Method340

16.1.3 The Audiolingual Method341

16.1.4 The Oral-Situational Method343

16.1.5 The Cognitive-Code Learning Method344

16.2 The Humanistic/Psychological School345

16.2.1 Community Language Learning345

16.2.2 The Silent Way346

16.2.3 Suggestopaedia347

16.2.4 The Total Physical Response Method348

16.3 Communicative Language Teaching349

16.3.1 The Communicative Approach349

16.3.2 The Natural Approach353

16.4 New Attempts within a CLT Framework355

16.4.1 Whole Language Education355

16.4.2 Content-Centered Education355

16.4.3 Task-Based Learning356

16.4.4 Theme-Based Teaching358

16.4.5 Experiential Learning359

16.4.6 Learner-Centered Teaching359

16.5 Summary360

16.6 Questions and Tasks360

CHAPTER 17 FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN CHINA362

17.1 Historical Review362

17.1.1 FLT:1950-1990362

17.1.2 Recent Development366

17.1.3 Examples of Alternative Methods369

17.2 Looking Ahead375

17.2.1 The Present Situation375

17.2.2 Trends and Challenges375

17.3 Summary379

17.4 Questions and Tasks380

CHAPTER 18 TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVEL-OPMENT381

18.1 Changing Views and Central Factors381

18.1.1 Teacher Training,Teacher Education and Teacher Development381

18.1.2 Factors Central to Teacher Self-Development383

18.2 Major Professional Goals and Tasks384

18.2.1 The Competence of an EFL Teacher384

18.2.2 Prerequisites of Self-Development384

18.2.3 Teacher Self-Development Tasks386

18.3 The Reflective Model of Teacher Development388

18.3.1 The Reflective Model388

18.3.2 Reflective Teaching Portfolios390

18.3.3 Reflection as a Process391

18.4 Class Observation392

18.4.1 Focus on the Teacher392

18.4.2 An Observation Task Sheet393

18.4.3 Different Approaches to Classroom Obser-vation394

18.5 Lesson Planning395

18.5.1 Knowledge before Lesson Planning395

18.5.2 Elements of a Lesson Plan398

18.5.3 Guidelines for Lesson Planning402

18.6 Summary404

18.7 Questions and Tasks405

POSTSCRIPT407

BIBLIOGRAPHY411